Pigs are widely distributed all over Africa with more than 70% of its population found in rural communities [9], where in most cases, the pigs are allowed to scavenge for food. Also, West Africa has the highest pork production, with Nigeria contributing 65%, and having 90% of its pig population raised under extensive system [10]. Pig production is a means of livelihood in many parts of Africa, especially for women and youths, who are involved in small scale farming. In Africa, pig production systems are diverse and complex among countries, each with its own set of challenges and opportunities. Globally, the pig industry was affected by incidence of disease outbreaks, especially Africa swine fever (ASF), as well as, increases in cost of inputs, which has affected production cost and output. These have affected Africa due to the prevalent production systems.

The production systems of pig in Africa often range from traditional scavenging, smallholder systems, to more intensive commercial setups [11,12]. The traditional system allows the pigs to roam around to scavenge for food and as such are exposed and become vulnerable to the threats of extremes of weather and disease infection, as well as, theft. Animals reared under this system are mainly indigenous breeds. Crosses between the indigenous and exotic breeds are also used in this system, but they do not reach market weight easily. This is because traditional system may not provide adequate nutrition for optimal growth, while the scavenging activities utilizes energy that is supposed to be used for growth and development [8]. Scavenging animals are usually associated with high rate of disease infection.

The intensive system, is based mainly on the exotic breeds, and their crosses. However, they require use of formulated diets, which can be expensive, due to the high cost of imported feed ingredients and scarcity of grains, which is required to meet the nutritional needs of the animals for optimal productivity in confinement. Intensive system of production also involves provision of good housing, health services and waste disposal facilities for proper management, thus, requiring more capital. While some pig farmers in Africa are investing in the use of modern pig farm equipment, many, especially the smallholder farmers use locally sourced materials such as canes, bamboo, planks or mud for wall or demarcation of the house. The indigenous breeds of pigs and their crosses are the common breeds reared in the traditional system, though not exclusive. The exotic breeds, such as Large white, Landrace, Duroc, Hampshire and Pietrain are common in the intensive system of production [8], even though Large White, Landrace and their crosses are more prevalent. The traditional systems with its open scavenging and minimal biosecurity measures facilitates disease spread [11]. Intensive systems, if managed well, can implement biosecurity measures to mitigate disease risks. However, the cost of implementing biosecurity measures may be a challenge for small scale pig farmers in Africa [11].

Recently, there have been establishment of clusters and pig farm estates for smallholder farmers in Africa. In some instances, they are organized into farmer groups or cooperatives. This is to grant smallholder farmers easy access to some facilities large scale farmers also enjoy. As a member of a cluster or cooperative, the farmers have easy access to facilities such as credit, government interventions, procurement of inputs on wholesale to share among members, veterinary services, good infrastructure and easy access to market. A good example is the Oke Aro Pig Farm Cluster in Lagos State, Nigeria, which is the largest pig farm estate in West Africa [13]. A major challenge of this system is the inability to consistently implement and enforce good biosecurity measures. Farmers and farm attendants compromise biosecurity protocols through sharing of equipment and labour among different units in the cluster, thereby facilitating easy spread of diseases and re-occurrence.

Over the years, pig production in Africa have been influenced by a combination of factors, including technological advancements, increased awareness of sustainable practices, changing consumer demands and perception, as well as efforts to address challenges like disease management and food security [12]. There has been progress in developing pig breeds that are well-adapted to local conditions and exhibit improved disease resistance, growth rates, and reproductive performance. South Africa and Nigeria appears to have the highest pork yield per animal across Africa [1] and this may be as a result of the use of improved breeds and adoption of intensive or modern production system.

Pig population in Africa as at 2020 was 44 million, this is approximately 4.6% of the total world pig population [1]. Among the five regions in Africa, Eastern Africa has the highest proportion of pig population, representing 38% of the total pig population in Africa (Figure 2). Northern Africa has the least pig population, contributing less than 1% of the total Africa pig population, and this can be attributed to the cultural-religious demography of the region, which does not support the consumption of pork, thus affecting the per capita consumption and production of pork in the region. Other regions including Western, Central and Southern Africa are prominent in pig production, contributing approximately 33%, 17%, and 12%, respectively, of continental pig population [1].

Nigeria and Malawi are the two countries in Africa whose pig population is above 5 million (Figure 1), with actual figure exceeding 7 million heads (Table 1). Together, both countries contribute approximately 35% of the total pig population in Africa. While Nigeria has the highest pig population, Malawi has the highest pig population density in Africa.

As indicated in Figure 3, pig population in Africa has been increasing over the years, especially, from the year 1980. This growth can be attributed to increased standard of living and population growth, which is creating need for more food. While there has been increased growth in the pig population of Eastern, Western, and Middle (Central) Africa, the pig population in Northern and Southern Africa are exceptions. The pig population in these two regions have not increased much over the years. Between 2001 and 2021, Africa pig population has increased from 21 million to 43 million, which is about 101% growth in the pig population of the continent.

The total pork production in Africa in 2021 was over 2 million tonnes [1]. The pork production (tonnes) in different regions of Africa between 1961 and 2021 is as presented in Figure 4. Pork production is shown to have increased in the different regions of Africa over the years (Figure 5), except in Northern Africa, with 56% decrease in pork production. The rate of pork production increase across other regions were 1,696%, 448%, 596%, and 1,396% in Western, Southern, Central, and Eastern Africa, respectively.

The total pork production of Western Africa in 2021 was 768,766.80 tonnes. South Africa had the highest per capita consumption (4.19 kg) of pork in Africa and it is a major producer of pork in Southern Africa. As at 2021, its contribution to pork production in Southern Africa region was approximately 320,450 tonnes, representing 97% of the 329,710 tonnes of pork produced from the region (Table 1). The remaining 3% was contributed by other countries within the region, which majorly include Namibia, Eswatini (Swaziland), Lesotho and Botswana.

The pattern of pork production in Northern Africa over the years has been undulating, with no substantial growth. The sharp drop in the pork output in this region from 2008 [1] can be attributed to decreased pig population, which arose from what can be termed as malicious culling of pigs, which claimed that pigs are reservoirs of avian influenza viruses following the outbreak of the disease in poultry in the region. Pork production dropped from 3,893 tonnes in 2006 to 1,328 tonnes in 2011, and further down to 1,234 tonnes in 2015 [1]. However, the production figure in the region rose again to 1,610 tonnes in 2021, and it is expected to continue to improve as some local farmers are showing interest in producing pork for tourist and foreigners that are resident in the region. In Egypt, pig production is concentrated among the Coptic Christian minority who are just about 10% of the population. However, contribution of countries such as Libya, Sudan, and Western Sahara to pork output in this region is highly negligible.

In Morocco, most of the pig farmers are poultry producers who ventured into pig production after their poultry farms were affected by waves of bird flu. Their target is usually to produce pork for visiting tourists and some foreigners that are resident in the country, as well as, to also bridge the gap on importation of pork, mostly from Spain, Belgium and France, into the country. Morocco has also been reported to export pigs to countries, such as Gambia and Cyprus, resulting from the notable growth in the pig industry experienced from around 2008 to 2013 with the entrance of new local farmers, producing for consumption of resident foreigners and tourists. However, pig production in Morocco has since then not experienced much growth, with the approximate pig population of 8,000 pigs and production of 630 tonnes of pig meat per annum at 2021 [6].

The consumption of pork varies widely across different African countries due to cultural, religious, economic, and geographical factors. Pork is not the most consumed meat in Africa. The per capita consumption of pork in Africa (1.53 kg) ranks after poultry (6.30 kg), beef (5.22 kg) and, chevon and mutton (2.39 kg). The per capita pork consumption in Africa (1.55 kg) is not comparable to 14.35 kg in Asia and 33.79 kg in Europe. The level of meat consumption increases with increased prosperity or income, as taste and preferences change. Like in some other parts of the world, the consumption of pork in Africa is largely affected by religious and cultural beliefs, that prohibits the consumption of pork.

Southern Africa has the highest per capita pork consumption (3.99 kg) in Africa, while the Middle, Western, Eastern, and Northern Africa have per capita pork consumption of 2.18, 1.97, 1.38, and 0.01 kg, respectively [1]. South Africa has a diverse population, with a range of dietary preferences, and pork is commonly consumed there. However, in countries with larger Muslim or Jewish populations, pork consumption tends to be much lower. These religious diversities have significant impacts on pork consumption patterns in various African nations. Countries with a majority of Muslim population, such as Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria, typically have low per capita pork production and consumption due to Islamic dietary restrictions [14]. As at 2020, Egypt produced about 628 tonnes of pork, which is lower, when compared to over 302,000 tonnes and 311,000 tonnes produced in Nigeria and South Africa, respectively [1]. Urban areas experiencing economic growth are known to shift towards more diverse diets, with observed alternative protein sources. This shift may have considerable impact on pork consumption. The spread of international fast-food chain, found in most African urban centers, including those that offer pork-based products, has been documented [15].

Although pig marketing channels in Africa are found to be simple, as live animal sales constitute the primary marketing channel for the sales of pigs by producers [13]. The conditions for transportation, handling, and selling of pigs are subject to many challenges [16]. Most farmers are forced to market live animals to middlemen who, in turn sell to butchers. At times the farmers slaughter by themselves and sell to the final consumer as fresh pork, to maximize profit. This usually occur when the middle men are trying to force the price down, to take advantage of farmers who are under pressure to sell to augment cost. However, there are out-growers system as well, where farmers produce for targeted buyers or processors, who uptake the animals for processing into products. There are a number of constraints to the efficient functioning of the market, arising from lack of market information, limited capital, lack of access to formal credit sources, lack of good roads, and exorbitant transport fees. These constraints increase actual market and transaction costs. Non availability of state support for pig products marketing, as we have in most part of the world is also experienced in most part of Africa. Therefore, government support in terms of infrastructure and policy would enhance pig marketing.

The challenges of pig production in Africa are diverse and it varies from country to country, and even within regions. Some common challenges encountered in pig farming across Africa are as listed below:

The increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) production and concentration in the atmosphere are connected to high ambient temperature, increasing variability in precipitation pattern and other extremes of weather conditions [18,19]. These changes and associated variations in climatic conditions over time, termed as climate change affects the productivity of livestock species, including pigs. Invariably, livestock are also implicated in generating 14.5% of the total anthropogenic GHG emissions, while pig production and related activities contribute 10.1% of the total livestock contribution to GHG production [18,19]. Africa agriculture, including pig production, is sensitive to climate variability because of over-reliance on rain-fed agriculture [20], thus making it one of the regions in the world that is most vulnerable to the detrimental effects of climate change [21,22].

Water availability and usage for livestock and crop (feed) production are predicted to be affected by climate negatively [23,24]. Water needs per pig for consumption and cooling, especially, as a means of ameliorating the effect of increased temperature, is increasing, while water availability is reducing. The reduction in water availability likewise, is negatively impacting plant-based feed resources supply, especially grains, thereby causing scarcity and increase in unit price of the commodities. The challenge of climate change on pig production is aggravated by incidence of drought and desert encroachment in some parts of Africa. Namibia, for example, has been experiencing drought, which has negatively affected pig and other agricultural production activities in the country [21,25].

Climate change has been identified as a major cause of increasing ambient temperature, which consequently leads to thermal stress and tends to have a more severe implication on the performance of pigs, than cold stress, especially in Africa. Heat is an important stressor of pig [26]. Heat stress is caused by high ambient temperature, coupled with high humidity, and it compromises productivity in pig production by affecting growth rate, reproduction efficiency, as well as, its negative implications on the health status of animals and mortality.

Breeding for high adaptability and heat tolerance, using indigenous breeds of pigs in Africa is an important strategy that can be explored, to ameliorate the effect of climate change on pig production in Africa. However, animals may not be able to fully adapt to climate stressors themselves, thus, adequate cooling systems and management strategies are required to mitigate the effects of heat stress on pig production in Africa [18,26]. Forecasting seasonal climate variations for farmers and transmitting the information to them in good time can enable farmers to make climate-smart farm decisions, to avoid losses, and also, enhance grain production and supply. Pigs are affected by climate change and they also enhance it through GHG production. As such, proper management strategies to mitigate the effect of climate change on pig and minimize generation of GHG from pig production and related activities, are both important in enhancing pig production in Africa [18].

Pig production in Sub-Saharan Africa presents various opportunities and potentials that can contribute to economic development, food security, and improved livelihoods for local communities. To realize the full potential of pig production in Sub-Saharan Africa, it is crucial to focus on developing a robust and sustainable pig value chain.

The human population of Africa is projected to reach nearly 2.5 billion in 2050 [30] and this population needs to be fed. This is an indication of more demand for food, which includes pig meat. The rural-urban migration has contributed to reduced farming population and thus the need for modern or mechanized method of pig farming for increased productivity and output, in answer to rising demand for pork. Recently, there have been increased investment by private and government institutions. With good agricultural land, quality input and good infrastructure, Africa can turn into a hub for supplying pork to the world. Afterall, in 1943, Nigeria had the largest pig farm in the world, established by the United African Company (UAC), and located in Kano. The farm grew into a very large-scale farm in the ‘50s and ‘60s, during which time the pig meat was transported by rail to Lagos, at that time, the commercial city and political capital of Nigeria, before its final export out of the continent. It is unfortunate that the pig farm eventually folded up in the late ‘70s due to religious prejudice [13].

Increased urbanization, population growth and rising incomes are factors driving increased demand for meat, including pork [31]. These increased demands are pointers to need for more investment in pig production. For example, the rapid population growth and urbanization being experienced in East African cities and in a country like Nigeria, offer a large and growing market for pork products. This presents opportunities to cater for the increasing urban demand for meat products, including pork. Coordinated efforts can ensure or guarantee both safe and legal trade for pigs and pork products, for the benefits of both producers and consumers.

Enhancing pig production in Africa to meet the needs of the increasing population also requires transforming the industry from the traditional method of scavenging pigs to a more productive system. This requires participation of players or firms that will provide modern housing facilities, improved breeds, improved feeding systems and capacity building for farmers on recent techniques in pig production e.g., artificial insemination. The adoption of techniques that are widely used, both in Europe and America is still low in Africa, due to lack of the know-how and inadequate infrastructure. Opportunities also abound in the feed industry for supply of input or commercial feed production. Farmers, who mostly, lack the knowledge of feed formulation, rarely have access to commercial pig feed.

In most part of Africa, pigs are usually marketed live by farmers to local slaughter slab, where little or no value addition is made on the product. There is need for good investment in processing and value addition of pigs in Africa, to harness the full potential of the enterprise. Some African countries, such as Liberia and Kenya have experienced considerable growth in private institution and development partner investments in pig production and processing. Investment in research and extension services is essential to disseminate best practices, disease management strategies, and modern pig farming techniques to farmers [8,13].

As Africa’s population grows and urbanizes, there is an increasing demand for livestock products, including pork. This has heightened demand, putting pressure on the availability and affordability of conventional pig feeds. African pig farmers often rely on both global and local markets for feed ingredients. For example, the Ukraine-Russia crisis has disrupted global grain markets, affecting the availability and affordability of imported feed ingredients [32]. Meanwhile, farmer-herdsmen clashes in Nigeria and other West African countries, for instance, has disrupted local crop production, reducing the supply of locally sourced feed ingredients, resulting in severe economic repercussions. The increase in feed costs due to global grain market disruptions has strained the finances of pig farmers. Simultaneously, local conflicts have led to reduced agricultural productivity, affecting the availability of local feed ingredients and the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. The Farmer-herdsmen clashes often lead to the displacement of farming communities, where farmers are forced to abandon their farms or reduce agricultural activities due to insecurity [33]. The Ukraine-Russia crisis and farmer-herdsmen clashes in Nigeria has contributed to feed ingredient scarcity for pigs in Africa, through disruptions in both global and local markets, increased feed costs, and reduced agricultural productivity. These crises highlight the interconnections of global and regional factors in shaping the challenges faced by pig farmers in Africa in securing an adequate and affordable supply of feed ingredients. This presents an opportunity to intensify the use of agro-industrial by-products as alternative feed sources for pigs to alleviate these feed scarcity challenges. Africa’s agricultural sector generates a plethora of by-products from crops like maize, soybean, groundnut, wheat, sorghum, cassava, rice, oil palm, and sugarcane. These by-products include cassava peels, rice bran, rice husk, soybean meal, corn bran, groundnut cake, palm kernel cake, brewer’s grain, wheat offal, wheat bran, bagasse, which can serve as valuable pig feed ingredients. Many of these agro-industrial by-products are rich in energy, protein, and fiber, making them suitable for inclusion in pig diets [34]. However, proper processing and supplementation can enhance their nutritional value. Utilizing these by-products, not only reduces waste but, also contributes to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to agriculture.