Recent advances in feed and nutrition of beef cattle in China — A review

Article information

Anim Biosci. 2023;36(4):529-539

Publication date (electronic) : 2022 September 6

doi : https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.22.0192

Qian Gao ¹

, Hu Liu ²

, Zuo Wang ¹

, Xinyi Lan ¹

, Jishan An ¹

, Weijun Shen ¹^,

, Fachun Wan ¹^,

¹College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China

²State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-Ecosystems; College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China

^*Corresponding Authors: Weijun Shen, Tel: +86-0731-84618034, Fax: +86-0731-84613027, E-mail: shenweijun@hunau.edu.cn. Fachun Wan, Tel: +86-0731-84618176, Fax: +86-0731-84610280, E-mail: wanfc@sina.com

Received 2022 May 12; Revised 2022 July 7; Accepted 2022 August 10.

Abstract

The beef cattle industry in China has advanced remarkably since its reform and opening up; consequently, China has become the world’s third-largest beef cattle producer. China is also one of the countries with the most substantial research input and output in the field of beef cattle feed and nutrition. The progress and innovation by China in the research field of beef cattle feed and nutrition have undoubtedly promoted the development of the domestic beef cattle industry. This review summarizes recent advances in feed resource development, nutrient requirements, and nutritional regulation of beef cattle in China. Limitations in current research and perspectives on future work are also discussed.

Keywords: Beef Cattle; China; Feed Resource Development; Nutrient Requirements; Nutritional Regulation

INTRODUCTION

The vigorous development of beef cattle farming can alleviate the competition for grains between humans and livestock and help improve the dietary structure of humans. Additionally, beef cattle farming contributes to rural revitalization in China. Given these factors, China has been increasing support for beef cattle farming and related research over the past decades.

China has become the world’s third-largest beef cattle producer, with an annual beef output of 6.72 million tonnes in 2020 [1]. At present, China’s GDP ranks second in the world, with a per capita GDP of US $12,500. Brazil is the world’s largest beef cattle producer, with a per capita GDP of US $8,000. However, the annual per capita consumption of beef in Brazil is 32.7 kg, more than four times that of China (Statista, https://www.statista.com). The low per capita beef consumption in China is due to the Chinese dietary habit of preferring pork and chicken. Beef cattle industry in China was established late. Before that, cattle, as important draught animals, were forbidden to be slaughtered without permission, which made it difficult to establish beef consumption habits. However, as machines have replaced cattle for ploughing in recent decades, slaughtering cattle for food is no longer restricted. Chinese people have gradually incorporated more beef into their diet, resulting in the sustained and rapid growth of per capita consumption of beef, highlighting China as a promising market. Driven by domestic beef consumption demand, the beef industry in China is expected to further develop and become more prominent in the global beef industry. However, China’s beef cattle industry has been facing multiple issues that restrict its efficient and sustainable development (Figure 1). The production efficiency of the beef cattle industry in China lags behind that of other developed countries, and the total yield of high-grade beef in China is much lower than domestic consumption. This is mainly because of the backward feeding management strategies and cattle breeding. Diets mainly consist of medium- and low-quality roughage, resulting in a low feed conversion rate and slow growth rate of beef cattle. Furthermore, according to the National Breed List of Livestock and Poultry Genetic Resources (2021 Edition), China has 80 beef cattle (Bos taurus) breeds, including 55 local breeds, 15 imported breeds, and 10 cultivated breeds. Local beef cattle breeds and their hybrid offspring make up the main body of the beef cattle farming industry in China. However, the body size and production efficiency of most of these breeds are poor. Beef cattle often face various environmental stresses, such as heat and cold stresses, which deteriorate animal welfare and farming profits [2–4]. In addition, beef cattle farming produces many pollutants, particularly methane [5]. In recent years, the Chinese government has promulgated a series of strict environmental protection laws that pose severe challenges to beef cattle farming in China.

Figure 1

Current status of beef cattle farming in China.

Feed and nutrition research plays a vital role in resolving the abovementioned problems, thus promoting the transformation and modernization of the beef cattle industry in China. In this review, we summarize the research progress in this field over the past decade.

DEVELOPMENT OF FEED RESOURCES

In recent years, the rising costs of raw materials have led to an increase in the costs of feeding beef cattle in China. The agriculture, forestry, and food industry produce many by-products that can be used as cheap feed resources to reduce feeding costs (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Some unconventional feed resources in beef cattle farming in China, as well as the limitations and coping strategies for the development of unconventional feed resources.

Previous studies have reported the nutritional components of these by-products [6,7]. Moreover, numerous experiments have been conducted to evaluate the feeding value of these resources for beef cattle (Table 1). Notably, these resources have not been effectively utilized. The main factors restricting the utilization of these resources in beef cattle farming are their low nutritional value, poor palatability, difficult preservation, and presence of toxic substances and anti-nutritional factors. Therefore, these feed resources are often processed to compensate for their defects. For example, silage treatment is conducive to the long-term preservation of green forage, such as banana stems and leaves [8]. In addition, ammoniation [9] and microbial inoculation [10] can improve the feeding value of crops straw, thus expanding the application of these resources in beef cattle production.

Table 1

Nutrient composition of some unconventional feed materials (DM basis) and their application effects in beef cattle farming

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF BEEF CATTLE

Since the promulgation of the “Feeding Standard of Beef Cattle” (FSBC) in 2004, China has continued to strengthen its research on the nutrient requirements of beef cattle, mainly focusing on energy and protein requirements of growing-finishing beef cattle (Table 2). However, marginal information is available on the demand of growing-finishing beef cattle for other nutrients, such as minerals and vitamins. Additionally, Xu et al [11] showed that a phosphorus concentration of 0.37% in the diet can satisfy the phosphorus requirements of crossbred replacement beef heifers (Simmental×Chinese yellow cattle) with body weights of (369.5±37.8) kg.

Table 2

Nutrient requirements of growing-finishing beef cattle in China

We compared the conclusions of previous studies with the recommendations of the FSBC [12], and the results suggested that these recommendations may over- or underestimate the actual nutrient requirements for beef cattle (Table 3). For example, Zhang et al [13] reported that the crude protein requirements of Qinchuan cattle with body weights of (289.3±17.8) kg (with an average daily gain of 0 to 1.2 kg) were lower (29 to 132 g per cattle per day) than those recommended by the FSBC [12]. The formulation of FSBC is based on the research results before 2004. Since 2004, China has been vigorously promoting the improvement of beef cattle breeds. During this period, many changes have been made to the composition of beef cattle breeds. For example, China cultivated some new beef cattle breeds after 2004, such as Xianan cattle, Yanhuang cattle and Yunling cattle. In addition, the proportion of concentrate in beef cattle diets is gradually increased to improve their production efficiency. Therefore, the difference between FSBC and the research results may be due to the changes in breeding, feed composition, and feeding management, which can affect the nutritional requirements of beef cattle.

Table 3

Comparison of the conclusions of previous studies with the recommendations of the feeding standard of beef cattle

NUTRITIONAL REGULATION OF BEEF CATTLE

Nutritional regulation strategies to improve the growth and rumen fermentation of beef cattle

The average production efficiency of beef cattle in China has been lower than that in developed countries for a long time, which reduces the profit and market competitiveness of the domestic beef cattle industry. Improving the production efficiency of beef cattle is thus a critical problem for the beef cattle industry in China.

The growth performance of beef cattle can be improved by adjusting the feed composition in the diet and adding functional substances. For adjusting diet structure, it has been reported that the growth performance and meat quality improved when beef cattle consumed high-quality roughage [14]. Moreover, increasing the dietary energy [15,16] and crude protein [17] levels can help improve the growth performance of beef cattle. Improved dietary nutrient levels may improve the growth performance of beef cattle, but can also cause adverse effects on rumen function, the viscera, and body metabolism of beef cattle [18]. Functional additives, such as probiotics and plant extracts, can improve the growth performance of beef cattle without exhibiting these negative effects (Table 4).

Table 4

Effects of different additives on the growth of beef cattle in China

In addition, the rumen, the main digestive organ of ruminants, provides 70% to 80% of the energy requirements for growth. Previous studies have reported that regulating dietary energy [19] and crude protein [20] levels and roughage combinations [21] can affect the rumen fermentation of beef cattle. Diets supplemented with 2-methylbutyrate [22], and folic acid [23] can promote rumen nutrient degradation and mycoprotein synthesis in beef cattle. Moreover, the addition of live yeast [24] and inulin [25] in the diet can increase the ratio of propionic acid to acetic acid in the rumen fluid, thus improving the energy utilization of feed in beef cattle. Additionally, beef cattle are usually fed a high-concentrate diet during the fattening period, which can easily induce subacute ruminal acidosis (SRAS). Dietary supplementation with inulin [25], and niacin [26] can effectively relieve SRAS and improve the rumen fermentation of beef cattle.

Nutritional regulation strategies to improve the meat quality of beef cattle

Beef quality is one of the most important factors affecting price and consumers’ purchase behavior. In China, the emphasis on the nutritional regulation of beef quality is for improving the intramuscular fat (IMF) content and optimization of meat fatty acid composition. Previous studies reported that increased dietary energy levels can increase the transcription and translation of adipogenic genes, promote the differentiation of preadipocytes into adipocytes, and decrease transcription and translation of lipidolytic genes, thus promoting the accumulation of IMF in beef [27,28]. In addition, dietary supplementation with daidzein [29], nicotinic acid [30], and conjugated linoleic acid [31] can also promote IMF deposition of beef cattle.

Unsaturated fatty acids (UFA), which as an important component of meat, are important for human health [32]. Wang et al [33] showed that increasing dietary energy levels can increase the monounsaturated fatty acids content of beef, which is attributed to a change in the rumen microflora. Furthermore, dietary supplementation with rumen-protected unsaturated fat [34], microalgae [35], and oregano essential oil [36] can increase the UFA content and optimize the fatty acid composition of beef.

Nutritional regulation strategies to improve the welfare of beef cattle

Heat, cold, and transportation are the most common and harmful sources of stress for beef cattle. Heat stress can impair the antioxidant, immune, and digestive functions of beef cattle [4,37]. Previous studies have reported that optimizing the dietary cation-anion balance [38] and increasing dietary nutrient levels [39,40] can effectively alleviate heat stress in beef cattle. Moreover, Zhuang et al [41] showed that replacing 30% of the forage component with fermented herbal tea residue in the diet can increase fecal microbial diversity and alleviate heat stress. In addition to adjusting the diet structure, diets supplemented with honeysuckle extract [42], grape seed extract [43], creatine pyruvate [44], puerarin [45], rumen-protected γ-aminobutyric acid [46], and Agastache rugosa essential oil [47] can alleviate heat stress in beef cattle.

Cold stress can damage the immune and antioxidant functions of beef cattle by activating the hypothalamus–pituitary–thyroid axis [2]. A recent study showed that increasing the dietary energy levels can relieve cold stress in beef cattle [48].

Transport stress can lead to an imbalance in rumen flora, nutritional metabolism, and immunity of beef cattle [3,49]. It has been reported that dietary supplementation with Astragalus polysaccharides [50] and creatine pyruvate [51] can alleviate transport stress in beef cattle.

Nutritional regulation strategies for reduction of pollutant emissions from beef cattle farming

High pollutant emission is a basic characteristic of the current beef cattle farming industry in China. Stricter environmental protection constraints in recent years have thus resulted in severe challenges for the beef cattle industry in China.

Methane (CH₄) is one of the main pollutants released from beef cattle farming. In 2009, methane emissions from beef cattle farming in China accounted for nearly two-thirds of all CH₄ produced by domestic ruminant farming [5]. In addition, CH₄ emissions from ruminants account for 2% to 12% of total dietary energy [52]. Therefore, mitigating CH₄ emissions is particularly important for the efficient and sustainable development of the beef cattle industry. The nutritional regulation strategies for mitigating CH₄ emissions can be mainly divided into optimizing the diet structure and adding functional substances to the diet (Table 5).

Table 5

Effects of different nutritional strategies on mitigation of CH₄ emissions from beef cattle in China

In addition to CH₄, beef cattle farming also produces other pollutants such as nitrogen, organic matter, and nitrous oxide (N₂O). A recent study reported that balancing the dietary ratio of nitrogen to sulfur can help increase nitrogen retention and reduce urinary nitrogen content of beef cattle [53]. Dietary supplementation with rumen-protected methionine [54], vitamin E [55], and N-carbamylglutamate [56] can also increase nitrogen retention and reduce urinary nitrogen content of beef cattle. Although the addition of tannic acid [57] and gallic acid [58] to the diets of beef cattle cannot affect the nitrogen balance, but they can attenuate the urine N₂O-N emissions by transferring nitrogen from the urine to the feces. Additionally, Gao et al [59] showed that adding red cabbage extract to the diet reduced urine N₂O-N emissions of beef cattle by increasing urinary hippuric acid excretion.

CURRENT UNDERSTANDING AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

China has abundant unconventional feed resources; however, these resources are not utilized effectively. Therefore, it is necessary to further evaluate the nutritional and feeding values of these resources and study appropriate processing and storage technologies to expand their application in beef cattle farming.

Because of the improvements in intensive beef cattle farming in China, the original extensive feeding management strategy has been gradually replaced with precision feeding techniques. Understanding the precise nutrient requirements of beef cattle is the premise of precision feeding. We compared the conclusions of previous studies with the recommendations of the FSBC [12]. The results suggested that these recommendations may over- or underestimate the actual nutrient requirements for indigenous beef cattle in China. Therefore, the nutrient requirements of indigenous beef cattle should be investigated further to establish precision farming techniques that can prevent potential growth deficiencies and minimize pollutant emissions from beef cattle.

Nutritional regulation plays an essential role in beef cattle farming. Functional additives, especially plant extracts and probiotics, have been the focus of research in China in recent years. In addition, based on the importance of the IMF deposition of beef, numerous studies have been conducted on the relationship between nutrition intervention and IMF deposition [27,29]. However, these studies mainly focused on the effects of nutrition intervention on the apparent meat quality traits, while there were relatively few studies on the regulatory mechanism of IMF deposition. It is necessary to explore the biological and nutritional regulation mechanisms of IMF deposition in the future. In addition, carbon peak and carbon neutrality have become popular topics in political and economic activities in China. Therefore, achieving low-carbon beef cattle farming through nutritional intervention is a promising research area in the future.

CONCLUSION

In general, China has a relatively solid foundation of research in the field of beef cattle feed and nutrition that strongly supports the development of domestic beef cattle industry. However, there are still many limitations in current research, which restrict the efficient and sustainable development of beef cattle industry. In the future, more studies should focus on developing unconventional feed resources, studying the regulation mechanisms for efficient feed utilization and high-quality beef production, and establishing technologies of precision nutrition and low-carbon farming for beef cattle.

Notes

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

We certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the manuscript.

FUNDING

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32172758), the China Agriculture Research System of MOF and MARA (CARS-37), and the Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (2021JJ30011).

References

1. National Bureau of Statistics of China. China statistical yearbook Beijing, China: China Statistics Press; 2021. (in Chinese).

2. Chen H, Aorigele , Wang CJ, et al. Effects of chronic cold stress on the serum enzyme activity, protein metabolism and serum hormone secretion of grazing Mongolian cows. J China Agric Univ 2019;24:47–54. (in Chinese).

3. Li FP, Shah AM, Wang ZS, et al. Effects of land transport stress on variations in ruminal microbe diversity and immune functions in different breeds of cattle. Animals 2019;9:599. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9090599 .

4. Chen H, Wang CJ, Simujid , et al. Effects of chronic heat stress on blood biochemical index, immune function and antioxidant capacity of grazing beef cattle. J China Agric Univ 2021;26:61–9. (in Chinese).

5. Xue B, Wang LZ, Yan T. Methane emission inventories for enteric fermentation and manure management of yak, buffalo and dairy and beef cattle in China from1988 to 2009. Agric Ecosyst Environ 2014;195:202–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.06.002 .

6. Wei C, Liu GF, You W, et al. Comparison on degradation rule of six kinds of common roughages for ruminants in rumen of beef cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2019;31:1666–75. (in Chinese).

7. Chen GJ, Xiong XQ, He RX, et al. Evaluation of feeding value for whole Broussonetia papyrifera silage in diet of Wuchuan black beef cattle. Sci Agric Sin 2021;54:4218–28. (in Chinese).

8. Guo ZX, Zeng L, He CX, et al. Beef cattle fattening efficiency of banana stems and leaves silage. Chin Agric Sci Bull 2019;35:97–101. (in Chinese).

9. Ma YL, Chen X, Zahoor Khan M, et al. The impact of ammoniation treatment on the chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of rice straw in Chinese Holsteins. Animals 2020;10:1854. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10101854 .

10. Guo W, Guo XJ, Zhu BC, Guo YY, Zhou X. In situ degradation, ruminal fermentation, and the rumen bacterial community of cattle fed corn stover fermented by lignocellulolytic microorganisms. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2019;248:10–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2018.07.007 .

11. Xu JH, Zhang W, Huang J, Jiang J, Sun CM, Mo F. Effects of dietary phosphorus levels on apparent digestibility of nutrients in Simmental crossbreed replacement heifers. Chin J Anim Nutr 2011;23:589–96. (in Chinese).

12. Ministry of Agriculture of the People’s Republic of China. Feeding standard of beef cattle (NYT815-2004) Beijing, China: China Agriculture Press; 2004. (in Chinese).

13. Zhang XM, Wang ZS, Chen Y, et al. Protein deposition efficiency and intestinal digestible crude protein requirement of growing Qinchuan cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2014;26:2155–61. (in Chinese).

14. Jin G, Xue YR, Zhang YQ, et al. Effects of different combinations of roughage and corn silage on growth performance, slaughter performance, meat performance and meat quality of Jinnan cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2021;33:1–11. (in Chinese).

15. Wang HB, Li H, Wu F, et al. Effects of dietary energy on growth performance, rumen fermentation and bacterial community, and meat quality of Holstein-Friesians bulls slaughtered at different ages. Animals 2019;9:1123. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9121123 .

16. Zhang MQ, Li Y, Li SX, et al. Effects of dietary energy levels on production performance, blood index, slaughter performance and meat quality of Holstein steers. Sci Agric Sin 2021;54:203–12. (in Chinese).

17. Liu Q, Wang C, Li HQ, et al. Effects of dietary protein level and rumen-protected pantothenate on nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance, blood metabolites and growth performance in beef calves. J Anim Feed Sci 2018;27:202–10. https://doi.org/10.22358/jafs/92660/2018 .

18. Qiu QH, Qiu XJ, Gao CY, Muhammad AUR, Cao BH, Su HW. High-density diet improves growth performance and beef yield but affects negatively on serum metabolism and visceral morphology of Holstein steers. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 2020;104:1197–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13340 .

19. Bai J, Zhao EL, Li YQ, et al. Effects of dietary energy level on rumen fermentation and blood biochemical indexes of Jinjiang cattle in early stage of fattening. Chin J Anim Nutr 2019;31:2159–67. (in Chinese).

20. Liu Q, Wang C, Li HQ, et al. Effects of dietary protein levels and rumen-protected pantothenate on ruminal fermentation, microbial enzyme activity and bacteria population in Blonde d'Aquitaine × Simmental beef steers. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2017;232:31–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2017.07.014 .

21. Zhang DD, Zhang YQ, Cheng J, et al. Effects of different roughage combinations on in vitro rumen fermentation characteristics of Jinnan cattle. Acta Pratac Sin 2021;30:93–100. (in Chinese).

22. Zhang YL, Liu Q, Wang C, et al. Effects of supplementation of Simmental steers with 2-methylbutyrate on rumen microflora, enzyme activities and methane production. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2015;199:84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2014.11.003 .

23. Wang C, Liu Q, Guo G, et al. Effects of dietary soybean oil and coated folic acid on ruminal digestion kinetics, fermentation, microbial enzyme activity and bacterial abundance in Jinnan beef steers. Livest Sci 2018;217:92–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2018.09.017 .

24. Wang C, Ma J, Hu R, et al. Effects of active dry yeast on growth performance, nutrient apparent digestibilities, rumen fermentation parameters and serum biochemical and antioxidant indexes of Simmental crossbred cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2021;33:3925–33. (in Chinese).

25. Tian K, Liu JH, Sun YW, et al. Effects of dietary supplementation of inulin on rumen fermentation and bacterial microbiota, inflammatory response and growth performance in finishing beef steers fed high or low-concentrate diet. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2019;258:114299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2019.114299 .

26. Luo D, Gao YF, Lu YY, et al. Niacin alters the ruminal microbial composition of cattle under high-concentrate condition. Anim Nutr 2017;3:180–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2017.04.005 .

27. Peng QH, Wang ZS, Tan C, Zhang HB, Hu YN, Zou HW. Effects of different pomace and pulp dietary energy density on growth performance and intramuscular fat deposition relating mRNA expression in beef cattle. J Food Agric Environ 2012;10:404–7.

28. Zhang HB, Guan WK. The response of gene expression associated with intramuscular fat deposition in the longissimus dorsi muscle of Simmental × Yellow breed cattle to different energy levels of diets. Anim Sci J 2019;90:493–503. https://doi.org/10.1111/asj.13170 .

29. Xu LJ, Bao LB, Zhao XH, et al. Effects of daidzein on carcass performance and meat quality of fattening Xiangzhong black cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2016;28:191–7. (in Chinese).

30. Yang ZQ, Zhao XH, Xiong XW, et al. Uncovering the mechanism whereby dietary nicotinic acid increases the intramuscular fat content in finishing steers by RNA sequencing analysis. Anim Prod Sci 2019;59:1620–30. https://doi.org/10.1071/AN18205 .

31. Zhang HB, Dong XW, Wang ZS, et al. Dietary conjugated linoleic acids increase intramuscular fat deposition and decrease subcutaneous fat deposition in Yellow breed × Simmental cattle. Anim Sci J 2016;87:517–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/asj.12447 .

32. Saber H, Yakoob MY, Shi PL, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and incident ischemic stroke and its atherothrombotic and cardioembolic subtypes in 3 US cohorts. Stroke 2017;48:2678–85. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.117.018235 .

33. Wang HB, He Y, Li H, et al. Rumen fermentation, intramuscular fat fatty acid profiles and related rumen bacterial populations of Holstein bulls fed diets with different energy levels. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019;103:4931–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-019-09839-3 .

34. Yang ZL, Yang WQ, Wu SF, et al. Effects of dietary rumen undegradable unsaturated fat on growth performance and fatty acid composition of muscle in Angus beef. Chin J Anim Nutr 2018;30:4444–52. (in Chinese).

35. Xu CC, Zhang S, Sun BZ, et al. Dietary supplementation with microalgae (Schizochytrium sp.) improves the antioxidant status, fatty acids profiles and volatile compounds of beef. Animals 2021;11:3517. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11123517 .

36. Li JL, Zhang R, Wu JP, et al. Effects of oregano essential oil on growth performance, blood physiological indices, meat quality and muscle fatty acids of Pingliang red cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2021;33:4478–90. (in Chinese).

37. Zhai RN, Dong XS, Feng L, Li SL, Hu ZY. The Effect of heat stress on autophagy and apoptosis of rumen, abomasum, duodenum, liver and kidney cells in calves. Animals 2019;9:854. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9100854 .

38. Cao YF, Li QF, Gao YX, et al. Effects of dietary cation anion balance on performance of heat stressed beef cattle. Acta Vet Zootech Sin 2012;43:1239–46. (in Chinese).

39. Gao CY, Wang JJ, Qiu QH, et al. Effects of diets with different nutrient levels on growth performance, rumen fermentation and blood parameters of fattening Holstein steers under heat stress conditions. Chin J Anim Nutr 2021;33:6555–71. (in Chinese).

40. Wu ST, Aorigrle , Wang CJ, et al. Effects of nutritional regulation on reproductive hormone content, immune function and antioxidant ability of grazing pregnant cattle during chronic heat stress period. Chin J Anim Nutr 2021;33:1545–54. (in Chinese).

41. Zhuang XN, Chen ZJ, Sun XH, et al. Fermentation quality of herbal tea residue and its application in fattening cattle under heat stress. BMC Vet Res 2021;17:348. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-03061-y .

42. Fu YB, Huang T, Qu MR, et al. Effects of honeysuckle extracts on serum hormones and antioxidant indexes of beef cattle under heat stress. Chin J Anim Nutr 2016;28:926–31. (in Chinese).

43. Chen H, Zhen J, Wu Z, et al. Grape seed extract and chromium nicotinate reduce impacts of heat stress in Simmental × Qinchuan steers. Anim Prod Sci 2019;59:1868–79. https://doi.org/10.1071/AN17152 .

44. Liu L, Zhang WJ, Yu HJ, Xu LJ, Qu MR, Li YJ. Improved antioxidant activity and rumen fermentation in beef cattle under heat stress by dietary supplementation with creatine pyruvate. Anim Sci J 2020;91:e13486. https://doi.org/10.1111/asj.13486 .

45. Li YJ, Shang HL, Zhao XH, et al. Radix puerarin extract (puerarin) could improve meat quality of heat-stressed beef cattle through changing muscle antioxidant ability and fiber characteristics. Front Vet Sci 2021;7:615086. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.615086 .

46. Chen J, Mao YQ, Guo K, et al. The synergistic effect of traditional Chinese medicine prescription and rumen-protected gamma-aminobutyric acid on beef cattle under heat stress. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 2021;105:807–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13507 .

47. Shang XL, Yang ZM, Lan J, et al. Effects of diets supplemented with Agastache rugosus essential oil on growth performance and serum biochemical indexes of beef cattle under heat stress. Chin J Anim Nutr 2022;34:395–403. (in Chinese).

48. Niu HX, Hu ZF, Zhang S, et al. Effects of dietary energy level and ambient temperature humidity index on growth performance, nutrient apparent digestibility and serum biochemical indices of fattening beef cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2020;32:3190–8. (in Chinese).

49. Zhao HD, Tang XQ, Wu ML, et al. Transcriptome Characterization of Short Distance Transport Stress in Beef Cattle Blood. Front Genet 2021;12:616388. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2021.616388 .

50. Liu YX, Sun Y, Li YL, Zhai L, Hao WQ, Gao TY. Effect of Astragalus polysaccharides on short-distance transport stress in beef cattle. China Anim Husb Vet Med 2017;44:87–93. (in Chinese).

51. Mao K, Lu GW, Li YJ, et al. Effects of rumen-protected creatine pyruvate on blood biochemical parameters and rumen fluid characteristics in transported beef cattle. BMC Vet Res 2022;18:35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-021-03134-y .

52. Johnson KA, Johnson DE. Methane emissions from cattle. J Anim Sci 1995;73:2483–92. https://doi.org/10.2527/1995.7382483x .

53. Zhao YC, Xie B, Gao J, Xiao MM, Zhao GY. Balancing the dietary ratio of nitrogen to sulfur by adding inorganic sulfur improves nitrogen retention and consequently decreases urine nitrous oxide emissions in steers. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2021;274:114711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2020.114711 .

54. Zhao Y, Rahman MS, Zhao G, Bao Y, Zhou K. Dietary supplementation of rumen-protected methionine decreases the nitrous oxide emissions of urine of beef cattle through decreasing urinary excretions of nitrogen and urea. J Sci Food Agric 2020;100:1797–805. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10217 .

55. Wei C, Lin SX, Wu JL, Zhao GY, Zhang TT, Zheng WS. Supplementing vitamin E to the ration of beef cattle increased the utilization efficiency of dietary nitrogen. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci 2016;29:372–7. https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.15.0322 .

56. Yang JS, Zheng J, Fang XP, Jiang X, Sun YK, Zhang YG. Effects of dietary N-carbamylglutamate on growth performance, apparent digestibility, nitrogen metabolism and plasma metabolites of fattening Holstein bulls. Animals 2021;11:126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11010126 .

57. Zhou K, Bao Y, Zhao G. Effects of dietary crude protein and tannic acid on nitrogen excretion, urinary nitrogenous composition and urine nitrous oxide emissions in beef cattle. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 2019;103:1675–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13186 .

58. Wei C, Yang K, Zhao GY, Lin SX, Xu ZW. Effect of dietary supplementation of gallic acid on nitrogen balance, nitrogen excretion pattern and urinary nitrogenous constituents in beef cattle. Arch Anim Nutr 2016;70:416–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/1745039X.2016.1214345 .

59. Gao J, Cheng B, Liu Y, Li MM, Zhao G. Dietary supplementation with red cabbage extract rich in anthocyanins increases urinary hippuric acid excretion and consequently decreases nitrous oxide emissions in beef bulls. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2021;281:115075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.115075 .

60. Jin S, Huang SZ, Zhong Y, Liang MD, Chen T, Wang XM. Evaluation of mixing silage of Musa paradisiaca stems and leaves and Stylosnthes guianensis. Pratac Sci 2016;33:512–8. (in Chinese).

61. Yang WW, Fu XY, Yang B, He YP, Qin SZ, Guo YL. Effects of different absorbents and corn on fermentation characteristics and quality of potato vines silages. Chin J Anim Nutr 2015;27:3643–8. (in Chinese).

62. Yue CJ, Yang YW, Hou PX, Ma JF, Shi A, Liang XJ. Effect of potato seedlings silage on growth performance and blood biochemical indexes in Angus cattle. Feed Ind 2020;43:6–9. (in Chinese).

63. Wang ZL, Liang XJ, Ding W, Li YY, Yang YW. Effect of potato starch residue replacing part of corn flour on growth performance and blood biochemical index of beef cattle. Feed Res 2020;43:17–22. (in Chinese).

64. Xia ZJ, Song Y, Chang WX, Zan LS. Effects of perilla cake and rapeseed meal instead of soybean meal in diet on apparent digestibility and nitrogen metabolism of beef cattle. China Anim Husb Vet Med 2020;47:2789–98. (in Chinese).

65. Wang NW, Huang XZ, Liu JY, Huang BZ, Shen YH. Evaluation of the nutritional value of mulberry leaves fed to Yunnan Yunling cattle. Pratac Sci 2019;36:2365–73. (in Chinese).

66. Luo Y, Li HB, Xiao JZ, et al. Effects of fermented mulberry leaves on serum biochemical, antioxidant and immune indexes of Xiangxi Yellow cattle × Limousin hybrid F1 fattening bulls. Chin J Anim Nutr 2020;32:4914–21. (in Chinese).

67. Gong J. Dynamic change and rumen degradation characteristics of Caragana korshinskii nutrients in sheep. Chin J Anim Nutr 2012;24:1983–91. (in Chinese).

68. Chen L, Zhang LQ, Hong L, et al. Analysis of nutritional composition for feeding Caragana intermedia pellets and the test for the fattening effect on beef cattle. Heilongjiang Anim Sci Vet Med 2014;11:95–8. (in Chinese).

69. National Bureau of Statistics of China. China rural statistical yearbook Beijing, China: China Statistics Press; 2021. (in Chinese).

70. Zhu JC, Li RH, Yang XY, Zhang ZQ, Fan ZM. Spatial and temporal distribution of crop straw resources in 30 years in China. J Northwest A&F Univ 2012;40:139–45. (in Chinese).

71. Wang W. Study on protein and energy requirements and metabolism rules of 6-10 month-year-old Jinjiang cattle [Master‘s thesis] Nanchang, China: Jiangxi Agricultural University; 2012. (in Chinese).

72. Liu DY. Study on the energy and protein requirement of Xiangzhong Black cattle xiannan Cattle [Master’s thesis] Nanchang, China: Jiangxi Agricultural University; 2013. (in Chinese).

73. Qiao YL, Tang LL, Xia XL, Chen SC, Fang Y, Fang FP. Fattening nutritional requirements of Simmental × Guizhou local hybrid cattle. Guizhou Agric Sci 2014;42:158–63. (in Chinese).

74. Wei M. Research of evaluation of net energy requirement and effective energy value of common feedstuffs for growing Wandong cattle [Doctor’s thesis] Nanjing, China: Nanjing Agricultural University; 2018. (in Chinese).

75. Wei M, Chen L, Lian XM, Chen ZQ, Yan PS. Energy and protein requirements for maintenance of Southern Yellow cattle fed a corn silage or straw-based diet. Livest Sci 2018;207:75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2017.09.002 .

76. Bai J, Zhao EL, Li MF, et al. Effects of dietary energy level on growth performance, nutrient digestion and energy metabolism of Jinjiang steers in early stage. Chin J Anim Nutr 2019;31:692–8. (in Chinese).

77. Chen Y, Wang ZS, Zhang XM, Wang J, Zou HW, Jiang XD. Energy metabolism and requirement of growing Qinchuan cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2016;28:1573–80. (in Chinese).

78. Bai J, Zhao EL, Li MF, et al. Energy metabolism and requirement of Jinjiang cattle in the latter stage of fattening. China Anim Husb Vet Med 2019;46:732–9. (in Chinese).

79. Gu SF. Study on energy requirement of hornless Xianan cattle in early fattening stage [Master’s thesis] Nanchang, China: Jiangxi Agricultural University; 2021. (in Chinese).

80. Ma J, Wang C, Wang ZS, et al. Active dry yeast supplementation improves the growth performance, rumen fermentation, and immune response of weaned beef calves. Anim Nutr 2021;7:1352–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2021.06.006 .

81. Huang WM, Tan L, Fen Wang, Kang L, Li XB, Zuo FY. Effects of yeast culture on growth performance, slaughter performance and meat quality of finishing cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2019;31:1317–25. (in Chinese).

82. Du RJ, Jiao SY, Dai Y, et al. Probiotic Bacillus amyloliquefaciens C-1 improves growth performance, stimulates GH/IGF-1, and regulates the gut microbiota of growth-retarded beef calves. Front Microbiol 2018;9:2006. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.02006 .

83. Zhao XH, Chen ZD, Zhou S, et al. Effects of daidzein on performance, serum metabolites, nutrient digestibility, and fecal bacterial community in bull calves. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2017;225:87–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2017.01.014 .

84. Chen GJ, Zhang R, Wu JH, et al. Effects of soybean lecithin supplementation on growth performance, serum metabolites, ruminal fermentation and microbial flora of beef steers. Livest Sci 2020;240:104121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2020.104121 .

85. Bai YP, Zhang R, Wu JP, et al. Effects of oregano essential oil on growth performance, slaughter performance and meat quality of Pingliang red cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2020;32:5778–87. (in Chinese).

86. Liu C, Wang C, Zhang J, et al. Guanidinoacetic acid and betaine supplementation have positive effects on growth performance, nutrient digestion and rumen fermentation in Angus bulls. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2021;276:114923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.114923 .

87. Luo D, Gao YF, Lu YY, et al. Niacin supplementation improves growth performance and nutrient utilisation in Chinese Jinjiang cattle. Ital J Anim Sci 2019;18:57–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2018.1480426 .

88. Liu Q, Wang C, Li HQ, et al. Effects of dietary protein level and rumen-protected pantothenate on nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance, blood metabolites and growth performance in beef calves. J Anim Feed Sci 2018;27:202–10. https://doi.org/10.22358/jafs/92660/2018 .

89. Wu Q, La SK, Wang C, et al. Effects of coated copper sulphate and coated folic acid supplementation on growth, rumen fermentation and urinary excretion of purine derivatives in Holstein bulls. Anim Feed Sci Technol 2021;276:14921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.114921 .

90. Li GL, Zhang MM, Bai HX, Zhang YG. Effects of lysophospholipid on growth performance, nutrient apparent digestibility and serum biochemical indexes of Angus beef cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2022;34:1050–7. (in Chinese).

91. Zhang XM, Wang ZS, Tang CM, et al. Effects of different dietary protein sources on energy and nitrogen metabolism and methane emission of beef cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2014;26:1830–7. (in Chinese).

92. Zhang XL, Liu JW, Zhao HB, et al. Effects of dietary crude protein levels on respiration metabolism, nutrient apparent digestibility and serum biochemical indices of Steppe Red cattle. Chin J Anim Nutr 2021;33:6833–42. (in Chinese).

93. Lin SX, Wei C, Zhao GY, Zhang TT, Yang K. Effects of supplementing rare earth element cerium on rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance and plasma biochemical parameters in beef cattle. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 2015;99:1047–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12295 .

94. Guo JB, Wang C, Wang JQ. Effects of 2-methylbutyrate on daily gain, dietary nutrient digestion and methane emissions in Simmental cattle. China Anim Husb Vet Med 2016;43:2020–25. (in Chinese).

95. Yang K, Wei C, Zhao GY, Xu ZW, Lin SX. Effects of dietary supplementing tannic acid in the ration of beef cattle on rumen fermentation, methane emission, microbial flora and nutrient digestibility. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 2017;101:302–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.12531 .

96. Sun YK, Yan XG, Ban ZB, Yang HM, Zhao YM. Effect of nitrate on the methane production and productivity of cattle. J China Agric Univ 2017;22:54–60. (in Chinese).

97. Zhang XM, Smith ML, Gruninger RJ, et al. Combined effects of 3-nitrooxypropanol and canola oil supplementation on methane emissions, rumen fermentation and biohydrogenation, and total tract digestibility in beef cattle. J Anim Sci 2021. 99skab081. https://doi.org/10.1093/jas/skab081 .

98. Jin Q, You W, Tan XW, et al. Caffeic acid modulates methane production and rumen fermentation in an opposite way with high-forage or high-concentrate substrate in vitro. J Sci Food Agric 2021;101:3013–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10935 .

99. Wang YC, Yu SJ, Li Y, et al. Pilot study of the effects of polyphenols from chestnut involucre on methane production, volatile fatty acids, and ammonia concentration during in vitro rumen fermentation. Animals 2021;11:108. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11010108 .

Article information Continued

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Feed materials	Nutrient levels (%)								Annual yield¹⁾, million tonnes	Application effects	References

	DM	CP	EE	NDF	ADF	Ash	Ca	P
Agriculture by-products
Soybean straw	92.99	5.83	1.61	69.86	58.16	-	1.46	0.18	31.36	Rumen degradation rates of DM, OM, and CP: soybean straw > corn straw	[6]
Sugarcane top	94.24	6.60	0.81	76.53	39.80	-	0.64	0.14	27.03	The rumen degradation rate of DM: sugarcane top> corn straw	[6]
Banana stem and leaf	89.70	6.15	2.13	47.72	42.42	8.93	-	-	27.63	ADG (No effect; Replacement ratio of corn silage in the diet = 100%)	[8, 60]
Peanut vine	90.00	10.20	1.61	44.99	39.16	-	2.42	0.11	20.51	Rumen degradation rates of DM, CP, and NDF: peanut vine > corn straw	[6]
Potato vine	11.97	16.84	4.97	37.16	-	9.46	1.88	0.20	10.25	ADG, DMI, and F/G (No effect; Replacement ratio of corn silage in the diet = 20%)	[61,62]
Food industry by-products
Potato starch residue	89.17	7.92	0.64	31.94	15.89	4.64	0.55	0.66	-	ADG, DMI, and F/G (No effect; Replacement ratio of corn in the diet = 4%)	[63]
Perilla cake	89.26	34.50	7.72	38.50	18.79	2.71	0.98	0.89	-	DM and NDF digestibilities ↑; Nitrogen deposition ↑ (Replacement ratio of soybean meal in the diet = 100%)	[64]
Forestry resources
Mulberry leaf	95.26	22.50	2.20	24.71	21.37	14.01	2.42	5.65	-	DMI and ADG ↑; Serum MDA content ↓ (Propotion in the diet = 30%)	[65,66]
Broussonetia papyrifera leaf	23.62	17.93	3.25	47.64	30.69	6.39	1.06	0.20	-	ADG ↑; F/G ↓; MCP content ↑; PUFA content of beef meat ↑ (Replacement ratio of corn silage in the diet = 66.17%)	[7]
Caragana korshinskii	95.08	16.43	3.96	63.03	42.09	5.85	1.25	0.27	-	ADG (No effect); Serum urea nitrogen and alkaline phosphatase content ↓; (Propotion in the roughage = 70%)	[67,68]

Breeds	Energy requirements¹⁾ (MJ/d)	Protein requirements²⁾ (g/d)	References
200 to 225 kg
Jinjiang cattle	rDE = 35.535×ΔW+6.989	-	[71]
	rME = 33.194×ΔW+2.849
225 to 250 kg
Jinjiang cattle	-	rCP = 528.79×ΔW+246.65	[71]
		rDCP = 453.86×ΔW+211.70
275 to 300 kg
Xianan cattle	rDE = 0.517×BW^0.75+0.170×ΔW	rCP = 5.40×BW^0.75+359.35×ΔW	[72]
	rME = 0.402×BW^0.75 +36.020×ΔW	rDCP = 2.79×BW^0.75+260.69×ΔW
Xiangzhong black cattle	rDE = 0.648×BW^0.75+33.120×ΔW	rCP = 5.29×BW^0.75+430.69 ×ΔW	[72]
	rME = 0.506×BW^0.75+32.150×ΔW	rDCP = 2.66×BW^0.75+377.95 ×ΔW
Qinchuan cattle	-	rCP = 5.94×BW^0.75+470.84 ×ΔW	[13]
		rIDCP = 3.71×BW^0.75+285.22×ΔW
Simmental × Guizhou local hybrid cattle	rNE_mf = (0.300×ΔW+0.322) ×BW^0.75	rCP = (6.40×ΔW+6.26)×BW^0.75	[73]
300 to 325 kg
Wandong cattle	rME_m = 0.522×BW^0.75	rMP_m = 3.93×BW^0.75	[74,75]
	rNE = (0.348+.291×ΔW)×BW^0.75	rNP_m = 2.63×BW^0.75
Jinjiang cattle	rDE = 0.638×BW^0.75+36.837×ΔW	-	[76]
325 to 350 kg
Qinchuan cattle	rDE = 0.778×BW^0.75+37.050×ΔW	-	[77]
	rME = 0.668×BW^0.75+33.490×ΔW
350 to 375 kg
Jinjiang cattle	rDE = 0.770×BW^0.75+40.088×ΔW
	rME = 0.645×BW^0.75+38.603×ΔW	-	[78]
400 to 425 kg
Xianan cattle	rDE = 0.854×BW^0.75+16.921×ΔW	-	[79]
	rME = 0.709×BW^0.75+14.043×ΔW

ADG (kg)	BW (kg)	rCP (g/d)		BW (kg)	rNE_mf (MJ/d)		rCP (g/d)					BW (kg)	rNE (MJ/d)

		FSBC¹⁾	JJ²⁾		FSBC¹⁾	SG³⁾	FSBC¹⁾	AX⁴⁾	XN⁵⁾	SG³⁾	QC⁶⁾		FSBC¹⁾	WD⁷⁾
0	225 to 250	320	247	275 to 300	19.37	21.74	372	357	365	423	401	300 to 325	23.21	25.09
0.3		452	405		24.77	27.82	501	486	472	552	542		25.69	31.38
0.6		576	564		28.79	33.90	619	616	580	682	684		28.72	37.67
0.9		691	723		34.18	39.98	731	745	688	812	825		32.50	43.96
1.2		796	881		42.51	46.06	834	874	796	941	966		37.33	50.26

Additives	Dosage¹⁾	Responses²⁾	References
Saccharomyces cerevisiae	5 g per cattle per day (viable yeast ≥2×10¹⁰ CFU/g)	ADG ↑; Rumen MCP and propionic acid contents ↑; CP and NDF digestibilities ↑; Serum IgA and IgM contents ↑	[80]
Yeast culture	150 g per cattle per day	ADG ↑; F/G ↓; Back fat thickness ↑	[81]
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens C1	4×10¹⁰ CFU per cattle per day	ADG ↑; FCR ↑; Serum GH and IGF-1 contents ↑	[82]
Daidzein	400 mg/kg DM	ADG ↑; CP digestibility ↑; Serum GH and IGF-1 contents ↑	[83]
Soybean lecithin	20 g/kg DM	ADG ↑; F/G ↓; Rumen total VFA concentration ↑	[84]
Oregano essential oil	10 g per cattle per day	ADG ↑; The slaughter weight ↑	[85]
Betaine	0.6 g/kg DM	ADG ↑; FCR ↑; Rumen total VFA and NH₃-N contents ↑	[86]
Niacin	640 mg/kg DM	ADG ↑; F/G ↓; OM, DM, CP, NDF, and ADF digestibilities ↑	[87]
N-carbamylglutamate	40 mg/kg body weight	ADG ↑; FCR ↑	[56]
Pantothenate	0.48 g/kg DM	DMI ↑, ADG ↑; OM, DM, CP, NDF, and ADF digestibilities ↑	[88]
Coated folic acid	4 mg/kg DM	ADG ↑; OM, DM, CP, NDF, and ADF digestibilities ↑	[89]
Lysophospholipid	0.05% DM	ADG ↑; EE and CP digestibilities ↑	[90]
Guanidinoacetic acid	0.48 g/kg DM	ADG ↑; FCR ↑; ADF and NDF digestibilities ↑	[86]

Strategies	Measures¹⁾	Responses	References
Dietary structure optimization	Substituting canola or cottonseed meal for soybean meal	CH₄ yield (L/d): 13.3% (canola meal) or 32.8% (cottonseed meal) ↓	[91]
Dietary structure optimization	Increasing dietary CP level from 8.15% to 10.67%	CH₄ yield (L/d): 56.0% ↓	[92]
Functional additives supplementation	Cerium (240 mg/kg DM)	CH₄ yield (L/d): 25.3% ↓	[93]
	2-methylbutyrate (2 g/kg BW)	CH₄ yield (L/d): 27.07% ↓	[94]
	Tannic acid (13 g/kg DM)	CH₄ yield (L/d): 14.7% ↓	[95]
	Nitrate (1% DM)	CH₄ yield (L/d): 28.5% ↓	[96]
	3-nitropropanol (200 mg/kg DM)	CH₄ yield (L/d): 25.6% ↓	[97]
	Caffeic acid (40 g/kg DM)	CH₄ yield (mL/g DM) of in vitro fermentation at 48 h: 8.1% ↓ (high-forage substrate)	[98]
	Polyphenols from chestnut involucre (0.2% DM)	CH₄ yield (mL/d) of in vitro fermentation: 8.4% ↓	[99]