The growth performance and carcass attributes of cattle are influenced by gender (male, female, castrated) [1,2]. Females are more affected than males due to their higher precociousness, whereas steers maintain an intermediate position. Differences in carcass conformation and fat content might also affect other meat quality parameters such as pH, color and tenderness. In Europe, beef is produced from cows, heifers, steers and young bulls of beef and dairy breeds. The percentage of their contribution varies across countries. For instance, more than 50% of beef comes from cows in France and from young bulls in Poland [3,4]. As a result, consumers have no access to beef from steers and therefore have no opportunity to appreciate its high quality. Due to the low profitability of beef cattle production, a continuous increase in the prices of protein supplements (which is a long-term trend) and high, fluctuating grain prices, the animals are fed mostly cheap farm-made feeds based on grass silage supplemented with concentrates. Grazing is often associated with low-energy diets and low energy intake, furthermore producing bulls characterized by low fatness, muscles with poorer color stability and more intense flavor, and tougher meat. Semi-intensive production systems are dedicated to females and steers rather than bulls. From a cattle breeder’s perspective, the advantage of steers is that they do not require very high energy concentrations in the ration, and are less sensitive to restriction or changes in dietary protein levels than bulls. In comparison with bulls, steers are also more docile and easier to handle because castration lowers their blood testosterone levels. Thus, they can be grazed together with other animals, including heifers. In Poland, heifers account for approximately 15% of all cattle slaughtered, and 312,200 heifers were slaughtered in 2018 [5].

The aim of this study was to compare growth performance, carcass traits and meat quality in young bulls, steers and heifers produced by crossing Limousin (LM) bulls with Holstein-Friesian (HF) cows, and slaughtered at the same age.

Semi-intensive feeding was reflected in the fattening performance of bulls, steers and heifers (Table 2). After 11 months of fattening, bulls were characterized by the highest average body weight, whereas the lowest average body weight was noted in heifers (p<0.05). There were no significant differences in dry matter intake per kilogram of animal body weight. The differences in body weight at the end of fattening were reflected in HCW. Steers had HCW of 260.0 kg, which was an intermediate value between those determined in bulls and heifers. The less intensive grass-based system had no negative effect on the production potential of bulls whose average daily gain was highest (0.846 kg). A higher growth rate of males, compared with females, including castrated males vs females, has been well documented in previous studies. According to de Araujo Marques et al [11], the low final body weight of heifers is due to lower muscle deposition in this gender. Despite semi-intensive fattening, fat cover score was highly significantly higher in heifers (7.7 points) than in bulls (4.8 points) and steers (5.0 points). This is consistent with the findings of Bureš and Bartoň [1] who demonstrated that crossbred heifers of late-maturing breeds slaughtered at 18 months of age had considerably higher carcass fat content than their counterparts slaughtered at 14 months of age. Considerable carcass fatness in heifers suggests that crosses of the late-maturing HF breed and the medium-maturing LM breed should be slaughtered at an earlier age. In the present study, higher fat scores were expected in steers. In a previous experiment conducted by Nogalski et al [12], steer carcasses had significantly higher fat content than bull carcasses. An interaction between gender and body weight before slaughter was noted for carcass fatness because the increase in fat content with increasing body weight was considerably higher in steers than in bulls. In the current study, no significant differences in fat cover scores were found between bulls and steers (Table 2).

The slaughter value of cattle and carcass quality are related to the percentage share of cuts with high market value in the carcass. According to Choroszy et al [13], beef carcasses classified into higher conformation classes in the EUROP grading system have higher weight of five primal cuts. In the present study, no significant differences in carcass conformation were noted between genders. However, bulls had a higher percentage share of the most valuable cuts in the carcass than steers (p<0.01) and heifers (p<0.05), and a higher percentage share of LT in the right half-carcass than steers (p<0.05). Bulls have high carcass value due to their capacity to deposit muscle [14]. Testosterone, the principal androgen produced by interstitial cells in the testicles (particularly in sexually mature males), stimulates muscle development and promotes nitrogen retention [15]. In bulls castrated before reaching sexual maturity, androgen production is inhibited, growth rate slows down, and fat deposition increases [16]. In this study, no significant differences in dressing percentage, the percentage share of round in the right half-carcass or LT area were found between genders. Heifers were characterized by the highest dressing percentage, but the noted differences were not statistically significant. The value of 57.54%, determined in our study, is higher than that reported by Węglarz [17] who found that dressing percentage was significantly higher in heifers than in bulls (53.3% vs 52.5%). Similar values of dressing percentage in heifers and steers vs. bulls can be attributed to their high carcass conformation scores (7.4 points in heifers and 7.2 points in steers vs 7.3 points in bulls) and greater predisposition to deposit fat (higher fat cover score).

Tissue composition is another determinant of beef carcass quality (Table 3). Significant differences in the percentage content of lean meat, fat and bones in three-rib cuts were found between bulls, steers and heifers. In comparison with heifers, three-rib cuts from bull carcasses and steer carcasses had significantly higher lean meat content, and the difference between bulls and steers was small (2.68%). The difference in the fat content of three-rib cuts between bulls and steers is consistent with the difference in their fat cover scores in the EUROP grading system. In heifers, an increase in carcass fat content was accompanied by a decrease in carcass lean content. Carcass fat content was 5.15% higher in steers than in bulls, but this value is not indicative of excessive fatness; on the contrary, it could have a beneficial influence on the sensory attributes of beef (Table 5).

An analysis of the proximate composition of LT revealed that gender had no effect on the ash and total protein content of LT, although such correlations were observed by Rotta et al [14]. Ash is important for the supply of sodium, potassium, phosphorus and magnesium which are of great nutritional importance to humans. In the current experiment, females had fatter carcasses (Table 2) and higher intramuscular fat (IMF) percentage (Table 4) than males. According to Priolo et al [18], higher carcass fatness is associated with a slower cooling rate of muscles resulting in a faster pH decline. Slow cooling combined with a low pH of muscles enhances protein denaturation, leading to an increase in color lightness L* [19]. There is a linear relationship between the active acidity of meat and L* values: an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions (pH) in meat contributes to a decrease in color lightness, whereas L* values increase with decreasing pH levels [20]. Meat from heifers had higher values of color parameters L*, a*, b*, compared with meat from bulls and steers. Intramuscular fat is the chemically estimated fat content of meat, and the terms marbling and IMF are often used interchangeably [21]. Intramuscular fat is lighter in color than lean beef, and therefore its presence in muscles could contribute to an increase in L* values [2]. Meat color plays an important role in a consumer’s purchase decisions (Table 4).

The ability of muscles to hold water (water-holding capacity) is primarily determined by their pH. As the pH of beef increases, its water-holding capacity and the rate of heat transfer increase as well [22]. In the current study, meat from heifers had higher water-holding capacity than meat from bulls, and an intermediate value was determined in steers. The amount of water captured and retained in meat before and after cooking influences its juiciness and, consequently, palatability as well as the saleable weight of the product [23]. Greater cooking loss of muscles from bulls vs. steers and heifers was noted by Zhang et al [24]. In studies by Węglarz [17], and Hanzelkova et al [25], beef from bulls was characterized by greater cooking loss than beef from heifers. Higher fat deposition in heifers improved the water-holding capacity of meat whereas greater fat loss during cooking increased cooking loss [26]. In the present study, gender had no influence on cooking loss.

Studies investigating trends in beef production should focus not only on improving slaughter value and carcass traits, but also the quality of beef so as to meet rising consumer expectations. Consumer research conducted until the 1990s revealed that tenderness was the most important attribute driving consumer liking. However, more recent studies have shown that as overall tenderness improved and tenderness variation decreased, flavor has become a more important driver of beef consumer liking. In general, as long as tenderness and juiciness are at acceptable levels, flavor is the main driver of overall liking [27,28]. In the present study, beef from steers and heifers scored higher for flavor (4.86 in both cases) than beef from bulls. More significant differences between animals of different sex categories were noted for tenderness. The Warner-Bratzler shear test is the most widely used instrumental test for meat tenderness evaluation. According to research conducted several decades ago, gender has no significant effect on WBSF values [29]. Later studies [25,30] revealed that gender is a significant determinant of beef tenderness regardless of cattle breed or aging time, and that meat from bulls is generally tougher than meat from heifers. This may be explained by gender differences between animals of similar age and physiological maturity. As muscle tissue matures, the structure of collagen becomes more compact and its solubility decreases. This is an important consideration because the solubility of intramuscular collagen is positively correlated with meat tenderness and sensory properties [31]. The lower tenderness of beef from bulls can be attributed to its higher collagen content, compared with beef from steers and heifers [24,32]. Due to its higher tenderness, meat from females is more appreciated by consumers than meat from males. On the other hand, castration improves beef quality because it increases carcass fat content. Castrating bulls generally increases IMF content in several breeds, including Korean cattle and Holsteins, and differences in adiposity are reflected in the eating quality of beef. Consumers from European countries, including Germany and France, prefer lean beef whereas in Korea, Japan, the USA and Australia, IMF is more important to beef quality grade due to considerable differences in IMF content between cattle breeds [33]. In the present study, samples of meat from heifers had lower WBSF values compared with samples collected from bull and steer carcasses. This is consistent with the results cited above, but other studies revealed no significant differences in WBSF values or tenderness between heifers and steers [34]. Beef from heifers was characterized by significantly higher tenderness in comparison with meat from bulls and steers (Table 4). Higher juiciness and flavor scores for beef from heifers and steers, compared with beef from bulls, can be attributed to the higher IMF content of muscles in heifers and steers than in bulls, in which IMF content was only 0.93% (Table 5). Intramuscular fat is believed to positively influence meat tenderness and juiciness. In our experiment, steer carcasses had optimal IMF content (2.21%), which had a beneficial effect on the aroma and flavor of beef. Such an IMF content of beef meets the preferences of modern consumers who look for low-fat products. In the current study, heifers received the highest scores and bulls received the lowest scores for the sensory attributes of beef, and intermediate values were noted in steers. These observations agree with the findings of Bureš and Bartoň [1] who reported higher sensory scores in heifers vs bulls and steers. However, in another study [34] beef from steers received higher sensory scores than beef from bulls and heifers.

Recent research has demonstrated that tenderness evaluation by untrained consumers is a better procedure for assessing the sensory properties of beef, compared with evaluation by trained consumers or instrumental measures [35]. The initial MSA model was developed in Australia using untrained consumer scores and production and processing data from beef samples. The system is updated on a regular basis to reflect current consumer preferences and production methods, which is one of its advantages over instrumental methods and evaluation by trained consumers. For instance, the weights of the four sensory scores (tenderness, juiciness, flavor liking, overall liking) used to determine eating quality (MQ4) were modified to apply equal weightings to flavor liking and tenderness, in order to reflect changing consumer preferences. Such an approach allows beef producers to maintain flexibility in responding to changing consumer tastes and making the relevant management decisions. In the present study, the above MSA grading scheme was used to determine the effect of gender on the eating quality of beef. The results were consistent with our findings. Beef from young bulls had slightly lower MQ4 scores than beef from steers and females [3].

Under the semi-intensive production system, heifers and steers had higher carcass fat content than bulls, which had a positive influence on the sensory properties of beef. The too low IMF content of meat from bulls (0.93%), which affected its sensory properties, was associated with the diet. Bulls are better suited for intensive systems than steers and heifers. A higher proportion of concentrate in the ration could have a beneficial influence on the fattening performance and carcass characteristics of bulls. Beef from steers and heifers can meet rising consumer expectations because it is characterized by more desirable physical properties and sensory attributes (water-holding capacity, shear force, color lightness, aroma, juiciness, tenderness, and flavor) than beef from bulls. The results of this study may encourage producers to raise steers and heifers for beef.