Rainfed Areas and Animal Agriculture in Asia: The Wanting Agenda for Transforming Productivity Growth and Rural Poverty

Article information

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Farming systems are the practices of agriculture in numerous ways in different locations and countries. The systems vary according to the type of agro-ecological zones (AEZs), biophysical environment, extent and quality of the natural resources available, and the level of poverty with resource-poor farmers. Success in agricultural development is dependent to a very large extent on the efficiency in the use and management of the natural resources (land, crops, animals and water). In this context, increased efficiency in natural resource management (NRM), and environmental sustainability is justified by the need for improved land use systems and total factor productivity The latter is dictated by three principal factors: About 43 to 88% of the human population depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, of which 12 to 93% of the people live in rainfed areas, and 26 to 84% of the arable land and 5 to 41% of the agricultural output comes from these areas. It is estimated that 70 to 90% of the ruminant livestock (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) are found in the rainfed mixed farms. The justification for targeting rainfed areas for food production is urgent, and is linked to the following:

Agriculture is a major sector in Asia, and FAO data (1996, 1997) indicates a contribution of 25 to 43% to the gross domestic product (GDP). Much of this contribution is made by the more fertile irrigated areas which are presently over used. However the rainfed areas which are of lower importance, also have potential, are currently underutilised and merit more development attention. About 43 to 88% of the human population depends on agriculture for their livelihoods, of which 12 to 93% of the people live in rainfed areas and 26 to 84% of the arable land. Some 5 to 41% of the agricultural output comes from these areas. Due to low productivity, the shares of total crop and livestock outputs coming from rainfed areas is much lower than the share of the total area under irrigation.

Livestock contribute 10 to 45% to the agricultural GDP in the developing world, and can be higher if the value of draught power is included in the calculation (Plate 1). It is one of the fastest growing sub-sectors in agriculture (World Bank, 2009). They play an important multifunctional and socio-economic role. It is estimated that 70 to 90% of the ruminant livestock (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) are found in the rainfed mixed farms. In India for example, the rainfed ecosystem occupies 68% of the total cultivated area and supports 40% of the human and 65 of the livestock population (Misra et al., 2009). The area produces 44% of food requirements and will continue to play a critical role in India’s agriculture (Singh et al., 2004). In India also, there also exists a rainfed livestock network, whose main objective is to seek appropriate policy and programmes for livestock (Köhler-Rollefson and Kishore, 2010).

Plate 1

Indigenous cattle used for preparing rainfed crop land in Surin, Thailand (C. Devendra).

The region is also home to the dominance of small farm systems. Based on a land area less than two hectares, an overwhelming majority of 87% of the global 470 million small farms worldwide is found in Asia (Nagayets, 2005). Many of these small farms are models of efficient and integrated NRM, but the small farmers continue to experience deprivation, poverty, hunger and vulnerability (Devendra, 2010a). These small farms generally have higher yields per hectare that larger farms (Cornia, 1985), due to low labour and production costs. This inverse relationship weakens as agriculture becomes more capital intensive as has been found in India (Hanumanth Rao, 1975; Deolaliakr, 1981). The resilience of this relationship will depend to a very large extent on the use of improved technologies and policy support.

Concerning animal agriculture, there is increased emphasis and justification for improved production systems to accelerate the output of foods of animal origin in most countries in South East Asia. This is directly linked to the fact that current outputs of meat and milk from ruminants are relatively low, as are the levels of self-sufficiency in these products, which are exacerbated further by increasing imports at high cost. Increased costs can trigger higher commodity prices that can be associated with strong global demand. The latest OECD-FAO (2010) forecast is that average crop prices over the next 10 years will be 15–40% higher in real terms relative to 1997–2006.

This increased requirement is associated with several demand-driven factors and includes inadequate animal protein supplies; rising incomes, which encourage people to diversify their diets in a variety of meats; eggs and dairy products, including the substitution of calories in livestock for low-priced starch calories. Equally awesome is the inadequacy of animal protein supplies to meet current and projected future requirements and spiralling costs. Improved animal production and productivity enhancement is therefore urgent in direct response to the need for more animal proteins. The major opportunities and challenges need to be thoroughly addressed to the extent possible (Devendra, 2007a; 2010b).

A few countries such as China, India and Indonesia have given priority to the development of these rainfed areas. In China for example, the north western region has given priority for the intensification of agricultural production and creation of “climate-free” agriculture in the grasslands through irrigation from underground sources. However, population pressures on these grasslands have been increasing, with resultant increased poverty rates, degradation, and dust storms (MEA, 2005).

This paper is concerned with the significance, importance and potential future contribution of rainfed areas in Asian agriculture: their relevance, different types of AEZs, extent, characteristics, patterns of rainfed farming systems, potential for transforming growth and improving rural prosperity. It also emphasises the opportunities for pro-poor R and D, integrated NRM, environmental sustainability, and need for investments.

DEFINITION OF RAINFED AREAS

Rainfed areas refer to all the lands outside of the irrigated, more favoured or high potential areas. The rainfed environment and areas have been variously referred to in several countries and in the literature as fragile, marginal, dry, waste, problem, threatened, range, less favoured, low potential lands, forests and woodlands, and include the reference to lowlands and uplands. Of these terms, less favoured areas (LFAs), low or high potential are quite widely used, and will also be adopted in this paper. For India for example, Fan and Hazell (2000) analysed data for 65 AEZs and estimated that in 1993, 42% of the rural poor lived in low potential rainfed areas, 16% in irrigated areas, and 42% in high potential rainfed areas (Plates 2 and 3).

Plate 2

Typical rainfed upland environment with grazing cashmere goats in extensive grazing systems in Liaoning province, China (C. Devendra).

Plate 3

Rural village in rainfed area in Mokhotlong, Eastern Lesotho (A. Devendra).

The value of the rainfed areas is totally dependent on rainfall. When the rains fail, the potential disaster in explosive with several resultant implications :

EXTENT OF RAINFED AREAS

In Asia and the Pacific, the area under rainfed agriculture account for about 223 million hectares, which represents some 67% of the total available land (ADB, 1989). Within this land area, the six countries in South Asia accounted for 52% of land area. Alexandratos (1995) has estimated that rainfed lands suitable for cropping in South Asia and currently not utilised approximates to 81 million hectares in South East Asia and 37 million hectares in South Asia.

Table 1 indicates the extent of rainfed agriculture and its importance in the different AEZs of the Asia-Pacific region (ADB, 1989). Rainfed areas in the arid/semi arid, sub-humid and humid AEZs were 38.8, 16.9 and 26.3 respectively as percentage proportion in Asia respectively. Of particular importance in the table also are the sizes of human population dependent on rainfed agriculture.

Table 1

Human populations, food demand and land use in the priority agro-ecological zones of Asia* (ADB, 1989)

Table 2 provides information by region globally, on the extent and distribution of the different categories of rainfed areas (CGIAR/TAC, 2000). The reference in Asia to rainfed areas includes marginal/less favoured+arid lands+forests and woodlands. In South East Asia, the total rainfed area is 99 million ha and in South Asia 116 million ha. This diversity in itself emphases the justification for transforming the potential of rainfed areas through their concerted development and is reflected in the following facts in Table 1 and other observations:

Table 2

Distribution of land types by region (CGIAR/TAC, 2000)

Table 3 gives information of the extent of rainfed areas in individual countries. In South East Asia the rainfed area as a proportion of total land available ranges from 63% in Indonesia. 68.5% in Malaysia to 97% in Cambodia. In South Asia, the corresponding values are from 27% in Pakistan to 84% in Nepal. Only in Pakistan and Sri Lanka does the percentage of irrigated land exceed that of the rainfed area. In absolute terms however, the largest irrigated land area of 43.8 million ha is found in India. The contributions of rainfed production, excluding Pakistan, to agricultural gross domestic product ranges from 16% in Malaysia to 61% in Myanmar. Most of the resource-poor farmers in rainfed areas are small farmers or smallholders and the landless, with very small farm sizes (Devendra, 2010a).

Table 3

Extent and importance of rainfed agriculture in selected countries in Asia (ADB, 1989)

In Malaysia, both annual and perennial crop production is prevalent. While rice, fruit, pepper and vegetable production is important, the tree crops (oil palm, rubber and cocoa) dominate agriculture, involving both large plantations and small farmers. The tree crops occupy more than 86% of the total agricultural area and involve most of the fertile alluvial coastal plains and undulating foothills. Oil palm alone uses about 63.4% of the total agricultural area, followed by rubber. The land area is further expected to expand by about two per cent by 2010.

LAND USE SYSTEMS

Arable land available and use in the future is likely to be a major issue in the future. This is due to the increased use of land for industrial and recreational needs and also urbanisation. Of equal concern is the loss of about 5.7 million hectares of arable land annually through soil degradation, and a further 1.5 million hectares as a result of water logging, salinisation and alkanisation (FAO, 1999). Increasing food production in the future is linked to three possible ways:

Of these options, it is doubtful that dramatic increases are going to be available from existing arable land. Maximum production has already been achieved and is levelling off. Intensifying existing land will give some increased production. Expanding production in the rainfed areas has great potential and clearly represents more attention.

In the face of looming climate change, land use systems especially in the semi-arid and arid AEZs will come under great pressure and are likely to be associated with the following :

FARMING SYSTEMS IN RAINFED AREAS

In tandem with the types of prevailing AEZs, most of the sub-humid and humid rainfed areas are found in South East Asia. Within these, the lowlands have larger areas of arable and permanent crop land, which accounts for the greater crop production in this AEZ. By comparison, most of the arid and semi-arid, and a significant proportion of the sub-humid zone occur in South Asia. The humid areas of South Asia are relatively small, and occur mainly in parts of India and Sri Lanka.

Against this background, the diversity of natural resources and farming systems, it is appropriate to briefly describe the major component types and characteristics of rainfed farming systems.

Using the definitions and consolidation of the classifications of the TAC (1994), the rainfed AEZ’s of relevance are as follows:

Of these, rainfed humid/sub-humid and rainfed arid/semi-arid tropical systems are priority AEZs. Most of the humid and sub-humid lowlands are found in South East Asia, while the lowlands of South Asia are semi-arid or arid. Within the AEZs, two broad areas are recognised: rainfed lowlands and rainfed uplands. The two areas are a continuum, with the former having greater opportunities for crop cultivation because of increased soil moisture and less fragility. The lowlands have larger areas of arable and permanent cropland, which account for the greater crop production in these areas. The characteristics of the lowlands and uplands have been reported (Devendra et al., 1997), and are briefly reiterated as follows:

Uplands

The uplands are characterised by hilly lands and slopes of 8 to 18%. As is used in the Philippines and China (Plate 4). The environment is fragile, resource degradation is common, as also overgrazing. Both annual (cereals, legumes, roots and vegetables) and perennial crops (coconut, oil palm, rubber and fruit trees) are grown, often without integration with animals. Rice yields are in the range 0.9 to 1.6 t/ha. Lower populations of cattle, goats and sheep, but high populations of pigs and poultry are common relative to the lowlands. Shifting agriculture is common. Rural poverty is more acute in these areas.

Plate 4

Contour mixed farming involving maize and legumes in the uplands of Mindanao, Philippines (C. Devendra).

The average annual rainfall of these AEZs is between 1,500–2,300 mm. Rice-based cropping systems are common, but also includes other annual crops and tree crops. Both ruminants and non-ruminants are reared, and the presence of both animal and crop diversity provide a variety of crop-animal interactions (Devendra and Thomas, 2002), the effects of which and on productivity, livelihoods of people and sustainable agriculture provide major opportunities for research and development activities. The overriding major constraint was the 5 to 7 months of dry periods and potential droughts.

Although tree crops are more commonly grown in the uplands, they are also as in oil palm cultivation, increasingly using up valuable arable land in lowland situations. In this context agroforestry, silvopastoral systems, and agropastoral systems are variously practiced, involving integration with ruminants (Devendra, 2012). These systems are underestimated, but are being increasingly recognised:

• Agroforestry : involves the use of various tree crop options, usually woody perennials very commonly in rainfed areas

• Silvopastoral systems: involve trees (e.g. coconuts, oil palm and rubber) and animals

• Agropastoral systems: integrates crops, animals and trees

The extent and availabilty and efficiency of use of forage biomass from native herbage, introduced grasses and legumes and the tree crops, are the primary drivers of animal production potential of these systems With oil palm for example, the total biomass available from the herbage and a variety of by-products increases the potential productivity and contribution from ruminants.

Biophysical characteristics

The following key features are characteristic of the rainfed areas:

• Involves the semi-arid/arid, sub-humid and humid AEZs

• Average growing period is 120–160 days

• Long dry seasons are common, with occasional droughts

• Land is of low quality : low fertility, nutrient-poor and has greater production risks

• Are usually farmed by very poor small farmers and the landless

• Rainfed agriculture is essentially subsistence

• Poverty, nutritional and food insecurity are very common

• Mixed farming of annual and perennial crops (millets, sorghum, oilseeds, cotton, rice and wheat) are the norm

• Crop failures occur more commonly in the semi- arid/arid areas

• Crop cultivation is dependant to a large extent on the return of manure from rearing animals (Plate 5)

• Are reservoirs of large concentrations of ruminants (cattle, goats and sheep), camels and smaller numbers of buffaloes and extensive systems.

• Land use systems are generally unsustainable, and are constrained by water and associated with inefficient management of the natural resources, and

• In the more arid areas overstocking as a means to reduce risk and environmental damage is common.

Plate 5

Woman delivering cattle manure as the main source of fertiliser for rainfed crop land in Nin Thuan province, South Vietnam (C. Devendra).

The large concentrations of ruminants in rainfed areas is reflected in about 51% of the total cattle and 55% of the total small ruminant population being found here (TAC, 1992). Similar data for India in rainfed areas indicated the presence of 49% cattle, 43% buffalo, 57% sheep, 45% goats, 28% pigs and 4% poultry (Ramachandra et al., 1997).

Essentially mixed farming or integrated systems

Asian agriculture is characterised by mixed farming activities which form the backbone of farming systems. It is typified by a variety of mixed or integrated systems in the various agro-ecological zones (AEZs), the diversity of crops and animals, mainly small farm systems, small farmers and poor people (Devendra, 2007b). Mixed farming systems are synonymous with crop-animal systems, are varied and integrated with cropping in various ways, and are widespread in all AEZs. With the increasing need for food in the future, these systems are likely to see important growth and continue to be dominant in the Asian region.

Mixed farming involves both annual and perennial crops. However, the decreased availability of arable land in many countries and the need for more food from animals could encourage further integration of ruminants with tree crops in the upland areas. Associations of tree crops and animals are established farm practice in many developing countries. The expansion and intensification of these systems is a realistic objective, given the extent of farmer experience, the periodic collapse of world prices for plantation commodities and the projected demands for animal products in the future. New technologies to intensify production and better scientific guidelines for managing the components of silvo-pastoral systems are now available that can lead to higher farm incomes and a more protected environment (Plate 6). However, future development of these integrated systems will require policy support to encourage the introduction of ruminants and to increase their productivity.

Plate 6

Integrated oil palm and cattle (Brahman and Hereford) system in Sabah, ast Malaysia. This production system is underestimated (C.Devendra).

Typical household characteristics

Table 4 gives some indication of the household characteristics, bio-physical data, and patterns of farming systems on five rainfed locations in China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam in the Crop-animal Systems Research Network (CASREN) project. The key features are as follows:

Table 4

Some household attributes and biophysical characteristics in rainfed farming systems in five countries in South East and East Asia (Devendra, 2005)

• The average annual rainfall was between 1,500–2,300 mm

• Rice-based cropping systems were common, but also includes other annual crops and tree crops

• Both ruminants and non-ruminants were reared, and the presence of both animal and crop diversity provided a variety of crop-animal interactions (Devendra and Thomas, 2002), the effects of which on productivity, livelihoods of people and sustainable agriculture provide major opportunities for research and development activities.

• The overriding major constraint was the 5 to 7 months of dry periods and

• There was a 10 to 25% level of contribution by animals to total farm income (Devendra, 2005).

In the LFAs and the more difficult environments, the ownership of animals by poor people is especially significant and is characteristic of the farming systems, since it is an important means of sustaining livelihoods and survival. Table 5 presents the extent of poor livestock keepers by production system and region, and several observations are relevant. Within these systems and within- region, South Asia and South East and East Asia accounted for a 59 to 60% proportion of total poor livestock keepers. Mixed irrigated systems were the next highest, with a 29 to 33.7% proportion. The higher number of poor livestock keepers in the mixed farming systems in rainfed areas is consistent with the higher proportion of the rural poor found in the combined marginal, arid lands, forests and woodlands.

Table 5

Proportion of poor livestock keepers within production system by region (%) (Thornton et al., 2002)

CROPPING SYSTEMS

The cropping systems in rainfed areas are essentially traditional. The crops grown in the more lowlandareas are rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, chickpea, pigeon pea, groundnut, pearl millet, finger millet and cotton. The cropping patterns are influenced to a great extent by the climate and soil types. Most of the soils are of poor fertility, which with the low and erratic rainfall result in poor yields per hectare. Both mixed cropping and intercropping are used.

Table 6 gives an indication of the range and types of farming systems in different AEZs. The patterns of farming systems are diverse involving both annual and perennial crops and various species of animals.

Table 6

Types of mixed farming systems in the different agro-ecological zones in Asia

Typical cropping systems appropriate to individual AEZs are as follows:

These cropping systems produce precious crop residues that are very important in the nutrition of ruminants. The value of the feeds produced increases with decreasing quality of grazing, type of AEZs, and soil type. The crop residues produced include straws from barley, finger millet, pearl millet, sorghum, wheat and rice, stover from maize, forage from chick pea and pigeon pea, haulms and meal from groundnuts.

ROLE AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS

Both ruminants (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) and non-ruminants (poultry, pigs and ducks) are involved in these systems. Unfortunately, no data were available for the sizes of buffalo, cattle, goat and sheep and non-ruminant (pig and poultry) populations, but relatively large numbers of more than 75% of buffaloes and about 70% of non-ruminants are found on small farms. The buffaloes are mainly the swamp type in South East Asia, and account for about 33% of the total population of buffaloes in Asia.

The choice of one or more species is dependent on the biophysical environment, type of cropping system, the overriding influence of consumer preference, market dictates, potential to generate income, contribution to crop cultivation and livelihoods. Much will depend on the extent of the functional contribution of animals. Mixed farming provides a range of products, and enables farmers to diversify risk from a single commodity. The subsistence and traditional pattern of farming is such that draught power from animals is extremely important and much of the land preparation, cultivation and transportation are done by buffaloes, cattle, camels and donkeys.

Animals occupy an important economic and ecological niche in agriculture. They play a multifunctional role with varied contributions to farming systems and human welfare. It is relevant to keep in perspective the following:

Ruminant production systems

These systems have been described and readers are encouraged to look at the main reference for the details (Devendra, 2007a). Four categories are identifiable:

• Rural landless systems

• Extensive systems

• Systems combining arable cropping (tethering, communal and arable grazing systems, and cut-and-carry feeding); and

• Systems integrated with tree cropping

Three observations are relevant about these systems:

Humid areas

For the sub-humid and humid tropics as in most parts of South East Asia such as Malaysia and the Philippines and the Mekong countries, there is underutilisation of plentiful and various types of feeds. This implies considerable opportunities for increased carrying capacities, expanding animal numbers, conservation of surpluses, and commercial production of feeds. In these circumstances, more intensive production systems are apparent involving the last two systems. The use of oil palm by-product feeds is an example of this.

Semi-arid and arid regions

By comparison, in the more difficult semi-arid and arid regions of South Asia, there are consistent feed deficits, under-nutrition and reduced productivity from animals. The search for feeds is thus inevitable, which in turn has led to the evolution of migratory systems, mainly nomadism, transhumance and commercial systems (Plate 8).

Plate 8

Movement of nomads and transhumants with their flock of goats and sheep in search of feed and water during summer in Rajasthan, India (C. Devendra).

Future of animal production systems

The prevailing production systems are unlikely to change in the foreseeable future (Mahadevan and Devendra, 1986; Devendra, 1989), however, there will be increasing intensification and a shift especially from extensive to systems combining arable cropping, induced by population growth and increased demand for foods of animal origin. The principal aim should therefore be improved feeding and nutrition, and maximum use of the available feed resources, notably crop residues and low quality roughages, and various leguminous forages as supplements (Plate 7).

Plate 7

Angora goat for mohair production in Clarens, South Africa (C. Devendra).

ANIMAL MOVEMENTS

Significance of nomadic and transhumant systems

In the semi-arid and arid regions where low rainfall and very high temperatures are the norm, nomadism and transhumance are intimately linked to the social life of the people. For the landless and the very poor farmers, these systems are important traditional survival strategies that have been developed by the people to cope with the seasonal changes through sheer resilience. Three key features are noteworthy:

Herd diversification : different species with different grazing habits and feed preferences e.g. goats, reduce the probability of total loss of all animals

Loaning animals and sharing herds : this enables spreading risks with other sin another area should there be a drought. Also, social contacts are strengthened.

Movement of herds : this is an obvious strategy for survival and includes a variety of traditional migrations: seasonal, short distance or long distance

Transhumance : is semi-nomadism which while is migratory, also involves some shifting arable cultivation or sedentary system in villages or oases in rainfed areas.

These migratory systems are yearly nomadic migrations of people with their cattle, goats, sheep, camels and donkeys in search of water and forage (Plate 8). The systems represent highly rational adaptations of human life to very severe adverse environment and climate change. Many such transhumance routes exist, and with the herds passing through, water supplies and plant cover are often used up well before the end of the long dry season. With the environment becoming drier by the year and concentrations of livestock continuing to grow, the shortfall especially of feeds and water is turning into a serious problem for the people.

In Rajasthan in India for example, large flocks of between 2,000–3,000 goats and sheep each are involved in the migration. These start in Gurg in Madya Pradesh and proceed to Jaipur over distances of over 1,800 km. Marwadi goats and Marwadi and Jaisalmeri sheep are usually involved. During the height of summer and very high temperatures (30–40°C), these result in 4–6 months of animal movement of between 10–15 km/d, motivated by the search for grazing as well as wage labour opportunities.

These systems are essentially extensive, with the difference that overwhelming numbers of goats usually with sheep are constantly on the move in search of feed and water. Both these systems are practiced by the shepherds and represent highly rational adaptations of human life to a severe and adverse environment (Devendra, 2007c), and is a natural response to traditional livelihood under extreme limitations in a stressful environment. The systems are particularly common in the semi-arid and arid areas of north western Pakistan and North India, where annual chronic shortages of feed and water shortages occur.

In the Indian sub-continent, it is estimated that between 30 and 40% of the total small ruminant population is on the move annually. These movements are spectacular, are a way of life, and involve whole households along well defined routes with several men accompanying the large flocks. Kids are often placed in baskets and are carried by camels along with kitchen utensils. With the onset of the rains and increased feed availability, grazing becomes more localised. The sheep are often shorn on the way and the wool sold at about US$ 0.50–0.70/kg. Additionally, the animals are also used for folding (Plate 9) the practice of fertilising crop land with dung and urine at a cost of about US$ 1,60–2.00/night, or 1 US$ 1 per 100 animals or 60–8 kg of grain in return (Devendra, 1999).

Plate 9

Flock of goats and sheep “folded” at night during nomadic movement in Andhra Pradesh, India (C. Devendra).

Quite often signs of environmental degradation are apparent in areas around sources of drinking water, which are extremely localised. Streams and ponds are quickly drained after the rains, leaving livestock and people alike to rely on a variety of specialised man-made water sources the most widely used are bore holes, either man made of mechanically created.

ANIMALS AS THE ENTRY POINT FOR DEVELOPMENT

Expanding land use systems

Evidence for the important and direct role of ruminants in the expansion and use of rainfed land use is reflected in the two case studies, one each from India and Malaysia:

i) India

Associated with the ownership of buffaloes and cattle according to land holdings, it is interesting to note the distribution of buffaloes across AEZs. Table 7 presents related data also from India. While the irrigated AEZs are the traditional environments of the species, there is clear evidence that buffaloes are also expanding into mainly rainfed AEZs. Over a 25 period between 1982–1997, Table 7 indicates that the buffalo population growth rate was highest in the arid area (Government of India, 1997). The combined population growth rate of 5.2% per year for the arid and rainfed areas is over two times that of buffaloes in the irrigated areas.

Table 7

Distribution of buffaloes across agro-ecological zones in India (1972–1997) (Adapted from Govt. of India, 1997)

Concerning Table 7, a few observations are relevant:

• Buffalo populations are clearly expanding beyond the traditional irrigated areas into the more difficult and less favoured rainfed environments

• This trend also suggests wider adaptive powers of buffaloes in the semi-arid and arid AEZs.

• The largest ownership of buffaloes by the higher proportion of landless, marginal and small farmers clearly emphasises the value of the species to the poorest of the poor and the most vulnerable

• Associated with above, the benefits to enhancing nutritional and food security is enormous, and,

• The trends underline the importance of targeting development initiatives that can focus on buffaloes and cattle in appropriate rainfed environments with potential impacts on improved livelihoods of the poorest of the poor.

ii) Malaysia

The potential importance and impacts of integrated oil palm-ruminant systems have recently been reviewed (Devendra, 2009). In this context it is important to highlight the fact that integration with ruminants in oil palm areas is slowly expanding to take advantage of the many economic benefits and impacts. Currently the only about 3% of the 4.7 million hectares of land under oil palm is used for integration, but this is expected to increase further with increasing awareness and policy support from the government (Plate 9). The integration model with oil palm offers extension of the principles involved with other tree crops like coconuts in the Philippines, Sri Lanka and South Asia, rubber in Indonesia, and citrus in Thailand and Vietnam, and elsewhere in Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean (Plate 7).

The potential production options within oil palm plantations are as follows:

• Breeding ruminants (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) for production systems

• Growing ruminants for meat production

• Zero grazing systems (beeflots, goats and sheep)

• Rearing ruminants to use the available oil palm by-products

• Rearing ruminants for grazing and controlling weeds

• Rearing ruminants for draught and haulage operations

• An entry point for development of integrated NRM and sustainable production systems

• Value addition and total productivity returns

• A hedge for possible reduction in the price of crude palm oil

The economic benefits due to positive crop- animal- soil interactions based on a review of the existing information gave the following results with reference to the use of cattle:

1. Increased animal production and income

   This arises from increased productivity and meat offtakes

2. Increased yield of FFB and income

   By about 30% with measures of between 0.49–3.52 mt/ha/yr

3. Savings in weeding costs

   By about 47–60%, equivalent to 21–62 RM/ha/yr

4. Internal rate of return

The IRR of cattle under integration was 19% based on actual field data. Several theoretical calculations approximate to this value.

STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH

Several important strategies need to be pursued for increasing productivity growth in the ruminant sector in tandem with the need to increase food from animals in the future. The strategies and opportunities relate directly to overcoming the constraints, the use of animals as an entry point for development, and the application of improved yield- enhancing technologies. There already exist a number of proven and potentially important productivity-enhancing technologies the replication of which can significantly increase productivity in animals. These include inter alia:

R AND D OF RAINFED AREAS

The justification for targeting the rainfed areas, together with the decreasing availability of arable land for farming, and increasing use due to human population increase is serious. This is further reflected in the projected decrease from between 0.17 and 1.0 ha/person in 1988/90 to 0.05 and 0.30 ha/person by 2010 (FAO, 1998). In China for example, the available arable land has decreased from 130.04 million hectares in 1996 to 130.03 million hectares in 2005. Associated with this, per capita arable land has fallen below 0.094 ha in 2004 (Qiu et al., 2008). Given the fragility of LFAs, the efficiency of NRM will require innovative strategies for improved soil fertility to enhance crop cultivation, coping with low rainfall, water harvesting and conservation, use of traditional ecosystem practices, and improved animal production systems that together can benefit the livelihoods of poor farmers.

An important aspect of R and D concerns the tremendous variability in the AEZs within and between -countries such as in Asia. The biophysical environment is therefore very complex, and needs - based and problem -solving R and D must therefore be adapted to fit in with the local conditions to have any tangible impact. Accelerated R and D can overcome the major constraints to agricultural production in rainfed areas. The key areas for such attention are community-based integrated natural resource management, technology delivery, and market -oriented production systems.

Such R and D perspectives will necessarily tap on the excellence of scientific principles that have already been established, as well as use of the more appropriate technologies from the developed countries. However support for, and investments in, international agricultural research in the developed countries has significantly been reduced, and will in fact probably taper off in the long term.

In the light of waning agriculture, much of the R and D initiatives will have to be generated locally and of direct relevance to the situation. Many of the stronger national agricultural research systems (NARS) like China, India, Japan and Korea are already ahead with this need. With rice or broiler production for example, these countries are a potential source of new technologies which are of much use to the weaker NARS like the Mekong countries. Adaptive research is the priority to stimulate progress in most countries. The approaches and pathways for such efforts are part and parcel of self-reliance in Asia.

The R and D agenda must necessarily be pro-poor and specifically target the LFAs. More importantly, it must also target the more densely populated areas populated by very poor people. This approach ensures that there will be maximum impact of the R and D activities on a greater pool of poor beneficiaries in the LFAs.

Effects of climate change

An additional area of much looming concern is that of coping with the effects and climate change impacts. A framework of national strategies for adapting to climate change and mitigation is required within which research will need to address climate-friendly productivity increases, and details of how the technologies developed appropriate to mixed farming conditions involving crops and animals. These advances can only come from increased investments in such research, supportive policy and application of systems methodologies. Table 8 provides details of the mitigation options that concern South Asia, where the problems in the semi-arid and arid AEZs are likely to be more severe that humid South East Asia. The information relate to type of practice, relative mitigation potential, challenges, opportunities, and co-benefits and contribution to sustainable development Climate change threats and effects on agriculture and food security has recently been reviewed (Devendra, 2011).

Table 8

Additional mitigation options in agriculture in South Asia* (Adapted from ADB, 2009)

More particularly and with specific reference to animal production, climate change will bring with it a number of potentially significant yield reducing impacts. Table 9 summarises the situation with reference to type of key issue (e,g., heat stress and feed resources), climate change impacts, and opportunities for R and D. The information that is presented is not exhaustive, but rather it has tried to capture in a comprehensive way the range of issues involved, priority attention and the need for more R and D investments.

Table 9

Major issues in animal production that will be affected by climate change impacts

INCREASED INVESTMENTS FOR R AND D

Agricultural research is one of the most economically productive investments that a government can make (Alston et al., 1998). There is no doubt that agricultural research can go a long way to reduce risks in agriculture, and address the great paucity of information in the understanding the effects of biophysical factors of temperature and rainfall on the natural resources and ecologies needs to start at the grass roots levels. The current problems of food deficits, spiralling production costs, changing consumer demands and the food crises, are exacerbated by decreasing and inadequate investments in agricultural research. The problems are made even more serious by inadequate technology availability and application, environmental issues, complex crop-animal-soil- people interactions and threats of climate change instability. If these are not urgently addressed through increased investments for R and D, the consequences of under-investments are serious and are associated with the following inter alia:

These and other issues and the need for more funds, place considerable responsibility in individual NARS and call for an assessment of their own R and D capacity. Aspects that are associated with the R and D capacity include:

The notion of more adaptive R and D and the search for increased self-reliance is important because increasingly technologies from the industrialised countries are becoming fewer, and many of the emerging issues are country- specific and will require resolution at the local level. In this context, the bigger and advanced NARS in Asia such as China, India, Japan and South Korea can play an increasingly prominent role in partnership with the more weaker NARS such as the Mekong countries. This process is already underway, but much more can be done to strengthen the partnerships as well as increase the funding agricultural R and D.

It is especially important to note that in studies in India (Fan et al., 2000) and China (Fan et al., 2000b); the returns to investments are very much higher in these areas in comparison to areas that have benefited from the Green Revolution. In the Indian context, improving agrarian prosperity and rural development focusing on the five pillars of public investment, credit, infrastructure (roads, transport and agro-processing), stable markets and knowledge transformation of farmers have been proposed (Shankar and Maraty, 2009). Similarly, it has been reported that the estimated returns to agricultural R and D are high, and high enough to justify an even greater investment of public funds (Pardey and Beintema, 2001), as waa reflected ih the investments and policies on the use of high-yielding rice varieties that resulted in the success of the Green Revolution in India.

Additionally, the critical importance of adequate investments in the livestock sector is best reflected in dairy production in India. The dairy sector has been very well developed through participation predominantly by small farmers and the landless, backed by effective co-operative development. These individuals survive because of dairying, and it is estimated that about 70% of all milk produced comes from this sector (Birthal, 2008). Milk production contributes an average 27% of the household income, ranging from 53% for the landless to19% forlarge farms (Shukla and Brahmankar, 1999). Additionally, the sector integrates the elements of gender, cultural barriers, training and education and technology application and governance, and has led to effective marketing networks.

Over the period 1970–2004 the average annual values of outputs of different categories of the livestock sector indicated that the milk group contributed 64.4% of the total value. The milk group was a major determinant of growth of the outputs, recording 4.5%/yr compared to meat of 4.0%/yr and 2.8%/yr of other groups (Dastagiri, 2010). It is not surprising therefore that there has been a consistent call for well justified increased investments in the livestock sector (Misra et al., 2009; Dastagiri, 2010) which can also significantly alleviate rural poverty and improve livelihoods. More recently, the FAO (2011) has identified three types of critical investments for agricultural R and D:

POLICY REQUIREMENTS

A number of policy issues are needed to support increased productivity and the development of sustainable animal agriculture. The issues by no means exhaustive but include inter alia attention to the following:

Policy is required for national strategies for adapting to climate change and mitigation, and the development of climate-friendly technologies appropriate to mixed farming

STRENGTHENING FARMER-RESEARCH-EXTENSION LINKAGES

In the past, the basic perception of extension is that it is a unified public sector service in technology transfer which is consistent with the keywords talking and persuasion. Currently, extension is viewed in numerous ways, from approaches to help farmers to increase production, to marketing arrangements. In recent years extension orientation is being expanded to include innovative structural, funding and managerial arrangements (Rivera and Sulaiman, 2009), and additionally, to technical capacity and skills. Of particular concern are the various demands on extension personnel and their detraction. To overcome these, technology application and delivery needs to be reinforced to farmer-research-extension-linkages.

CONCLUSIONS

Good opportunities exist for the development and increased contribution from animal agriculture in the context of production to consumption systems. The rainfed areas are underestimated but are potentially important from the standpoint of the natural resources therein, presence os several million landless and very poor people, and relatively large populations of ruminants. Improved efficiency of NRM can significantly enhance their capacity in food production in the various AEZs. Major constraints including climate change exist, but there are also compelling opportunities and socio-economic benefits that involve rural communities. Small farms in the LFAs will continue to be important in the production of a high proportion of especially ruminant meats and milk, enhance the natural resource base, and also help alleviate poverty, hunger and food insecurity in the foreseeable future. Priority development of the rainfed areas is urgent in which animal production can serve as the entry point to address integrated NRM, increased food production and pro-poor initiatives. Social and effective development policies are also needed to spur agricultural development, increased productivity, and improved human welfare in the future.

Article information Continued